FOOD SERVICES

 

FOOD SERVICES

DEFINITION:

Food science is a branch of science that studies all technical elements of food, from harvesting to slaughtering to cooking and consumption. It combines and utilizes knowledge from chemistry, engineering, biology, and nutrition to preserve, process, package, and distribute nutritious, wholesome, inexpensive, desirable, and safe foods.

EXPLANATION:

Food science has evolved over time as new technologies for preserving foods and ensuring public safety have become available. The food system was very different hundreds of years ago than it is now. People in rural areas purchased vast quantities of bulk essentials such as wheat, cereals, and sugar for home preparation, supplementing their staples with whatever fruits and vegetables they could cultivate or gather. These products were purchased in farmers' markets by city dwellers, a habit that is still practiced in many areas today. When preserved in cool, dark rooms called root cellars, some goods, such as potatoes, might last for months. People bought enormous blocks of ice cut from the surfaces of frozen lakes and rivers and preserved perishable meals in their ice boxes before modern refrigerators became accessible.

Throughout history, a variety of ways for preserving foods have been created, including salting meat, drying fruits and vegetables in the sun or over low fires, and turning milk into cheese. Nicholas Appert, a Frenchman, invented a method for preserving food in glass jars in the early 1800s. Appert is known as the "Father of Canning," but he is also hailed as the "Father of Food Science" by some. Modern food science, on the other hand, entails a lot more than only food preservation. Food scientists assist in the development of novel products, the design of manufacturing methods for these foods, the selection of packaging materials, the study of product shelf life, sensory evaluations, and microbiological and chemical testing. Food scientists research more fundamental phenomena that are closely related to the manufacturing of a certain food product and its qualities at universities.

Food science is an applied science that, like engineering, draws on information from a variety of natural science domains to solve practical challenges. Microbiologists, chemists, and physicists are all well-versed in the fundamentals of food science. Food scientists seek to ensure that products are free of bacteria and dangerous substances because food safety is everyone's top priority. The chemical makeup of meals is particularly essential in determining flavor, color, appearance, and texture quality. Food scientists must also have a basic understanding of engineering principles in order to comprehend how a processing method affects the food.

FOOD SCIENCE SUBDISCIPLINES

Food Microbiology or Food Safety

The causes of foodborne infections and how to avoid them.

Preserving Food

The causes of food spoilage and how to avoid it.

Food Science and Technology

The industrial procedures that are utilized to make food.

Development of New Products

The development of novel culinary items.

Sensory Evaluation

Food perception is the study of how food is perceived by the senses of the consumer.

The Science of Food

The molecular structure of food and how those molecules are involved in chemical processes.

Biotechnology in the Food Industry

The application of genetic engineering techniques to produce foods with desirable characteristics, such as insect resistance.

Science of Nutraceuticals

Foods that may offer special health or medicinal benefits are studied.

Science of Fermentation

Beer, wine, and other fermented foods are made.

The food industry is relatively immune to the economic ups and downs that other businesses face since people constantly need to eat. Food processing is the largest manufacturing industry in the United States, employing over 14 million people and accounting for 20% of GDP. After graduation, the vast majority of food science majors find well-paying professions.

ECOLOGY

 

ECOLOGY

 

DEFINITION:

Ecology, often known as ecological science, is a discipline of biology that investigates how plants and animals interact with their physical and biological surroundings.

EXPLANATION:

Light and heat, or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients in the soil, water, and the atmosphere are all part of the physical environment. Other varieties of plants and animals, as well as organisms of the same sort, make up the biological environment.

Ecology is a subfield of environmental science that is frequently misunderstood. Environmental science also analyses interactions of purely physical characteristics that do not involve biological systems, even though both are multidisciplinary sciences that focus on the interactions of populations of species. Environmentalism, which focuses on human-caused damage to the natural environment, is sometimes confused with ecology. Similarly, the terms ecologic and ecological are used interchangeably to mean "environmentally friendly. "Studies of animal populations and their surroundings can be traced back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle and his follower Theophrastus, despite ecology being a relatively recent study that only gained prominence in the second part of the twentieth century. As early as the fourth century B.C.E., Theophrastus articulated interrelationships among animals and between creatures and their surroundings. With the publication of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species in 1850, as well as the work of his contemporary and opponent Alfred Russel Wallace, the field began to bloom.

Wallace identified the interconnectedness of animal and plant species and classified them as bioeconomic, or living communities. Eduard Suess, an Austrian geologist, coined the word "biosphere" in 1875 to describe the various conditions that favor life on Earth. Environmentalists and other conservationists have used ecology and other sciences to bolster their advocacy positions since the 19th century. For political or economic reasons, environmentalist viewpoints are frequently divisive.

As a result, some ecological research has a direct impact on policy and political discourse, which in turn influences ecological research. The National Audubon Society, whose public policy office is in Washington, D.C., works with Congress, the executive branch of the federal government, and the media to promote environmental conservation, and is an example of a powerful environmentalist advocacy organization.

The basic tenet of ecology is that every living entity has an ongoing and continuous relationship with every other component of its environment. Ecology can be described as any condition in which creatures interact with their surroundings. Food chains or food webs connect species within the environment. Energy from the sun is acquired by primary producers (plants) via photosynthesis and moves upward up the food chain to primary consumers (plant-eating animals, or herbivores), secondary and tertiary consumers (meat-eating animals, or carnivores), and finally to waste heat. The matter is integrated into decomposers (such as mushrooms and bacteria), which destroy nutrients and return them to the ecosystem as a result of this process. The concept of an ecosystem can be applied to a pond, a field, or a patch of deadwood of various sizes. A micro-ecosystem is a tiny ecological unit. An ecosystem, for example, can be a stone with all the life beneath it. A forest is a meso-ecosystem, whereas an ecoregion is a macro ecosystem.

An ecological crisis can develop when a species or population's environment changes in a way that threatens the species' survival. A change in the climate (such as increased temperature or decreased rainfall), an exceptional incident (such as an oil spill), increased predatory activity (such as overfishing), or explosive development in the population of the species may all trigger the crisis.

Human actions have had a significant impact on many ecosystems during the last few centuries, diminishing the amount of forest on the planet (deforestation), increasing the amount of land devoted to agriculture, buildings, and highways, and polluting ecosystems.

ECOLOGICAL SUBDISCIPLINES

Physiological Ecology (or Ecophysiology) and Behavioral Ecology are two branches of ecology.

These studies look at how an individual adapts to their surroundings.

Ecology of Populations (or Autecology)

This research focuses on the population dynamics of a particular species or a related group of species (such as animal, plant, or insect ecology).

Ecology of the Community (or Synecology)

The interactions between species within an ecological community are the focus of this study.

Ecology of Ecosystems

This research looks at how energy and matter travel across ecological components.

Ecology of the Landscape

This research looks at processes and relationships across different ecosystems or very vast geographic areas (for example, Arctic or polar ecology, desert ecology, tropical ecology, and marine ecology).

Ecology of Humans

As diverse as the ecosystems and animals you research, an ecologist's job options are as many as the environments and animals you study. Basically, an ecologist is needed in any situation where research on the interaction of species and the environment is required. Oceans, deserts, woods, towns, grasslands, rivers, and every other part of the globe are studied by ecologists. Ecologists are increasingly collaborating with physical scientists, social scientists, policymakers, and computer programmers to better understand how species interact with one another and with their surroundings. Educators, technicians, field scientists, administrators, consultants, and authors are all examples of ecologists.

Cell biology

 

Cell biology

 

DEFINITION:

Cells are the smallest, self-contained units of an organism's structure, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm and encased by a membrane.

EXPLANATION:

 Cell biology studies the physiological qualities, structure, organelles (such as nuclei and mitochondria), relationships, life cycle, division, and death of these basic units of organisms at microscopic and molecular levels. Cell biology encompasses both the vast diversity of single-celled creatures like bacteria and the numerous specialized cells found in multicellular species like animals and plants. Cell biology has typically focused on concerns about how organelles perform and interact, how these cellular processes are regulated, and how different cells within an organism communicate with one another. All biological and medical sciences require a basic understanding of cell composition and function. In the domains of cell and molecular biology, examining the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly essential since the concepts learned from researching one cell type can be applied to other cell types. Genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, and developmental biology are all strongly related to cell biology research. Cell biology has traditionally focused on questions about how organelles work and interact with one another, how cellular processes are regulated, and how different cells within an organism communicate with one another. All biological and medical sciences rely on an understanding of the composition of cells and how they function. In the fields of cell and molecular biology, studying the similarities and differences between cell types is especially important because the principles learned from studying one cell type can be applied to other cell types. Genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, and developmental biology are all intertwined in cell biology research. Ribosomes in the cytoplasm make the majority of proteins. Protein biosynthesis or protein translation are terms used to describe this process. During synthesis, some proteins, such as those that will be integrated into membranes (membrane proteins), are transported to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and processed further in the Golgi apparatus. Membrane proteins can be released from the cell or moved to the plasma membrane or other subcellular compartments from the Golgi. Proteins pass through these compartments regularly. Proteins that are found in the ER and Golgi interact with other proteins but remain in their separate compartments. Other proteins make their way to the plasma membrane via the ER and Golgi.

CELL BIOLOGY SUBDISCIPLINES

Transport Modes: Active and Passive

The movement of molecules into and out of cells is referred to as this.

Adhesion of Cells

Cells and tissues are held together in this way.

Division of Cells

The study of how cells replicate is known as cell division.

Signaling in Cells

This is when chemical cues from outside the cell control cellular action.

Metabolism in Cells

These are the procedures for generating and releasing energy.

OTHER RELATED DISCIPLINES

Biochemistry

The study of chemical processes and transformations in living organisms is known as biochemistry.

Biology of Development

This is the scientific study of how organisms grow and evolve.

The science of genes, heredity, and organism variation is known as genetics.

Molecular Biology

This is the study of molecular connections among a cell's many processes, such as the interplay between DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and how these relationships are regulated.

Biology of Structure

This is the study of biological macromolecules' architecture and shape, particularly proteins and nucleic acids, and what causes them to have the structures they have.

Botany

 

Botany

Define:

Botany is the scientific study of photosynthesis-producing plants or multicellular organisms.

Explanation:

 Botany is often known as plant science or plant biology as a discipline of biology. Botany is a broad field of science that investigates the structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, ecology, and evolution of plants. Plants are important to study because they are an essential aspect of life on Earth, providing food, oxygen, fuel, medicine, and fibers that enable other living forms to exist. They absorb carbon dioxide, a waste product produced by most organisms, and greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, through photosynthesis. Plants, like other forms of life, can be examined on a variety of levels. The first is the molecular level, which is concerned with plant biochemistry, molecular biology, and genetics. The morphology and physiology of plants are studied at the cellular, tissue, and organelle (a discrete structure of a cell with a specialized function) level; while interactions within a species, with other species, and with the environment are studied at the community and population level.

 

Botanists used to study any living thing that wasn't an animal. Fungi, algae, and bacteria are now classified as members of other kingdoms, but they are still studied in introductory botany schools, according to the current categorization scheme. The ancient Greeks were among the first to write scientifically about plants. Empedocles, who lived in the fifth century B.C.E., believed that plants, like animals, had a soul, as well as reason and common sense. Plants, according to Aristotle, were in the same category as animals and inanimate objects. Theophrastus, Aristotle's pupil, published two works about plants that were still in use in the 15th century. Carl Linné, a Swedish physician-turned-botanist, is credited with inventing the systematic naming method (nomenclature), which is still used to provide scientific names to all species, plant and otherwise, today. Plants have always been a convenient organism to study scientifically since they do not present the same ethical concerns as an animal or human research. After crossing pea plants in his garden in the 1850s, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel wrote the first rules of inheritance, a set of core ideas relating to the transmission of hereditary features from parent organisms to their children. Barbara McClintock uncovered "jumping genes" and other information regarding inheritance by examining maize plants nearly a century later.

BOTANY SUBDISCIPLINES

Agronomy and Crop Science

Agronomy and Crop Science is an agricultural science that deals with the production of field crops and soil management.

Phycology and Algology

Algae research is the study of algae.

Bacteriology

Bacterial science is the study of bacteria (also considered part of microbiology).

Bryology

Mosses and liverworts are studied in this field.

Mycology

The study of fungi is known as mycology.

Paleobotany

The study of plant fossils is known as phytoarcheology.

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

The study of the structure and function of plants is known as botany.

Biology of Plant Cells

The study of the structure and function of cells is known as cell biology.

Genetics of Plants

This is the study of plant genetic inheritance.

Pathology of Plants

This is the study of plant diseases.

Pteridology

The study of ferns and their relatives is known as pteridology.

 

Botany as a bachelor's degree prepares students for professional work or graduate school. Plant pathology, forestry, agricultural production, horticulture, genetics and plant breeding, plant biotechnology, and environmental monitoring and control are all areas where a botany degree can help you advance your career. Positions as an ecologist, taxonomist, environmentalist, forester, and plant explorer are among the occupations open to someone who appreciates the outdoors. Biophysics, developmental botany, genetics, modeling, and systems ecology can appeal to someone with a mathematical background. A chemistry enthusiast could work as a plant physiologist, plant biochemist, or molecular biologist. Microbiology, phycology, and mycology are popular choices for people who are captivated by microscopic organisms. Ornamental horticulture and landscape design on a bigger scale necessitates the aesthetic use of plant shape and color. Plant pathology (diseases) or plant breeding can be of interest to someone concerned about the world's food supply.

BIOPHYSICS

 

BIOPHYSICS

Definition:

Biophysics, often known as biological physics, is an interdisciplinary science that uses physics and chemistry concepts, as well as mathematical and computer modeling approaches, to better understand how biological systems work.

Explanation:

Biophysics is a molecular science that aims to explain biological activity in terms of specific molecule structures and properties. Small fatty acids and sugars (1 nanometer (nm), or the width of three atoms), macromolecules such as proteins (5 to 10 nm), starches (greater than 1,000 nm and longer than the thickness of a human hair), and enormously elongated DNA molecules (more than 1 centimeter long but only 20 nm wide) are among the molecules studied or the scaled equivalent of a 45-mile-long strand of thread). The sole building blocks of living organisms, biomolecules, combine into cells, tissues, and entire organisms by producing intricate individual structures observable under a light microscope.

The origins of biophysics can be traced back to the ancient Greeks and Romans, who proposed theories concerning the physical basis for consciousness and perception. It grew rapidly following World War II, fueled in part by the application of nuclear physics to biological systems, such as the study of radiation impacts on living matter. Physicists were introduced to biologists and biological problems as a result of these studies, and biophysics emerged as a new scientific field. The comprehensive exploration of the structure of molecules in biological systems is an important topic of biophysical research. The model of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of life, is the most well-known achievement in this field. Furthermore, Francis Crick, the most recognized biophysicist, was one of three people to receive the Nobel Prize for this achievement. The researchers used data from an X-ray crystallography technique that displays the physical patterns of molecules.

Biophysics is now used to answer a variety of biological questions, such as "How can sense organs identify tiny chemicals in our environment and transform them into electrical impulses that deliver information about the outside world to the brain?" To solve such questions, biophysicists use chemical, physical, and biological analysis techniques. They can also use very precise and sensitive physical devices and procedures to monitor the characteristics of the movement of specific groupings of molecules to examine the relationship between biological function and molecular structure. These devices and procedures can even examine, alter, and quantify the behavior of single molecules.

DISCIPLINES IN CONNECTION:

Biophysics, as an interdisciplinary discipline, is used in many investigations of biomolecule structure and function, as well as cellular activity. Here are several examples:

Biological and chemical chemistry

Biomolecular structure, nucleic acid structure, and structure-activity correlations are all covered.

Molecular Biology and Biology

Gene control, single-protein dynamics, bioenergetics, and biomechanics are all covered.

Information Technology

This is when chemical simulations, neural networks, and databases come into play.

Mathematics

This course covers graph and network theory as well as population modeling.

Neuroscience and Medicine

These cover both experimental (brain slicing, for example) and theoretical (computer models) neural networks, membrane permeability, gene therapy, and cancer research.

Physiology and Pharmacology

Membrane channel biology, biomolecular interactions, and cellular membranes are all covered in these courses. Biomolecular free energy, biomolecular structures and dynamics, protein folding, and surface dynamics are all topics covered in this class.

Biology of Structure

This is about high-resolution protein, nucleic acid, lipid, and carbohydrate structures.

Most biophysicists discover their interest in natural phenomena in high school, enjoy riddles and problem solving, and enjoy developing and making things. More colleges and institutions, such as John Hopkins, Duke, and the University of Chicago, are offering undergraduate and graduate degrees in biophysics. Others include a biophysics emphasis in an advanced degree in chemistry, biology, physics, or another subject. Biophysicists can pursue a wide range of occupations due to their extensive education. You could work primarily in a laboratory, dealing with computers, teach, or become a science writer, depending on your interests and abilities. Many biophysicists go on to become professors or staff members at colleges, universities, medical schools, and dentistry schools, and there will be plenty of opportunities for young faculty members in the next two decades. Biophysicists who work in government, private research organizations, or industry have a strong research focus. As a result of recent advances in molecular biophysics and molecular biology, many new jobs have been established in industry. Biophysicists often work in groups with people from various backgrounds, interests, and abilities who collaborate to solve problems.

Biomedical engineering

 

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

Definition:

Biomedical engineering is the study and solution of biological and medical problems using standard engineering ideas and design techniques.

Biomedical engineers are needed for a variety of tasks, including designing instruments, devices, and software, combining knowledge from a variety of technological sources to develop novel processes, and conducting clinical research.

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING SUBDISCIPLINES

Although there are several subspecialties in biomedical engineering, they rarely "operate in isolation." Biomedical engineers who work in one area frequently draw on the knowledge of biomedical engineers who specialize in other fields. Studies on anatomy, bone biomechanics, gait analysis, and biomaterial compatibility, for example, considerably improve the design of an artificial hip. The forces acting on the hip can be factored into the prosthesis design and material choices. Similarly, knowledge of the behavior of the human musculoskeletal system is used in the design of systems to electrically stimulate the paralyzed muscle to move in a controlled manner. The biomaterials engineer is responsible for selecting the suitable materials for these devices.

Bioinformatics

This entails creating and using computer technologies to collect and evaluate medical and biological data. Bioinformatics work may entail employing advanced tools to organize and search databases of gene sequences with millions of entries.

Bioinstrumentation

This is the use of electronics and measurement techniques to create gadgets that aid in disease detection and therapy. Computers are an important aspect of bioinstrumentation, from the microprocessor in a single-purpose instrument that performs a range of modest jobs to the microcomputer in a medical imaging system that processes vast amounts of data.

Biomaterials

Both biological tissue and artificial materials for implantation are included. To create implant materials, it is necessary to understand the properties and behavior of live materials. One of the most difficult issues a biomedical engineer faces is choosing an acceptable material to install in the human body. Biomaterials must be nontoxic, noncarcinogenic (do not cause cancer), chemically inert, stable, and mechanically robust enough to endure lifetime stresses. Living cells are even included in newer biomaterials to create a true biological and mechanical match for living tissue.

Biomechanics

Classic mechanical engineering is used for biological or medical problems. Motion, material deformation, flow within the body and in devices, and chemical ingredient transport through biological and synthetic media and membranes are all studied. Biomechanics has led to the development of artificial hearts, heart valves, and artificial joint replacements, as well as a greater knowledge of the function of the heart, lungs, blood vessels, capillaries, musculoskeletal systems bone, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.

BioMEMS

Mechanical parts, sensors, actuators, and electronics are all integrated on a silicon chip in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The development and application of MEMS in medicine and biology are known as BioMEMS. The creation of microrobots that could one day do surgery within the body and the fabrication of tiny devices that could be implanted inside the body to administer medications on demand are two examples of BioMEMS.

Processing of Biosignals

For diagnostic and therapeutic applications, this entails collecting relevant information from biological signals. This may include analyzing cardiac signals to see if a patient is at risk of sudden cardiac death, developing speech recognition systems that can cope with background noise, or recognizing brain signal patterns that can be used to control a computer.

Biotechnology

This is a collection of strong technologies that use living beings (or parts of organisms) to create or modify things, improve plants or animals, or create microbes for specialized use. Traditional animal and plant breeding techniques, as well as the use of yeast in the production of bread, beer, wine, and cheese, were among the first biotech endeavors. The industrial usage of recombinant DNA and cell fusion, and evolutionary bioprocessing processes that can be used to help fix genetic abnormalities in humans, are examples of modern biotechnology. It also includes bioremediation, which entails the breakdown of harmful substances using living organisms.

Genetic, cellular, and tissue engineering

This includes more recent initiatives to tackle biomedical issues at the molecular level. These fields study the anatomy, biochemistry, and mechanics of cellular and subcellular structures to better understand disease processes and intervene at precise locations. Miniature devices with these properties can administer substances that activate or inhibit biological processes at exact target sites, promoting healing or slowing disease development.

Engineering in Medicine

This is the use of technology in hospitals for health treatment. Along with physicians, nurses, and other hospital employees, the clinical engineer is a member of the health care team. Clinical engineers are in charge of creating and maintaining computer databases of medical instrumentation and equipment information, as well as purchasing and using advanced medical instruments. They may also collaborate with clinicians to modify instrumentation to the physician's and hospital's specific needs, which frequently entails the integration of instruments with computer systems and custom software for instrument control, data collecting, and analysis. Clinical engineers assist in the implementation of cutting-edge technologies in health care.

Imaging in Medicine

To create an image, this combines knowledge of a specific physical phenomenon (such as sound, radiation, or magnetism) with high-speed electronic data processing, analysis, and presentation. These images are frequently obtained by minimum or noninvasive methods, making them less uncomfortable and repeatable than invasive treatments. Furthermore, radiology is the use of radioactive substances like X-rays, magnetic fields, and ultrasound to make images of the body, its organs, and its structures. These images can help doctors diagnose and cure diseases, as well as direct them during image-guided surgery.

Micro- and nanotechnology are two types of technology.

Microtechnology is concerned with the development and application of devices on the micrometer scale (one-thousandth of a millimeter, or about 1/50 of the diameter of a human hair), whereas nanotechnology is concerned with devices on the nanometer scale (about 1/50,000 of a human hair, or 10 times the diameter of a hydrogen atom). These fields include the invention of minuscule force sensors that can detect changing tissue properties, allowing surgeons to remove only diseased tissue, and nanometer-length cantilever beams that bend with cardiac protein levels, allowing doctors to diagnose heart attacks more quickly.

Engineering and Neural Systems

The replacement or restoration of lost sensory and motor abilities (for example, retinal implants to partially restore sight or electrical stimulation of paralyzed muscles to assist a person in standing), the study of the complexities of neural systems in nature, and the development of neurorobotics (robot arms controlled by signals from the motor cortex) are all areas covered by this emerging interdisciplinary field (developing brain-implantable microelectronics with high computing power, for example).

Bioengineering in Orthopedics

This is a field in which engineering and computational mechanics methods have been used to better understand the function of bones, joints, and muscles, as well as to create artificial joint replacements. Orthopedic bioengineers study the friction, lubrication, and wear characteristics of natural and artificial joints, conduct musculoskeletal stress analyses, and develop artificial biomaterials (biologic and synthetic) to replace bones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons, meniscus, and intervertebral discs. Gait and motion assessments are frequently performed for sports performance and patient outcomes following surgical operations.

Engineering for Rehabilitation

This is a rapidly expanding field of biomedical engineering. Rehabilitation engineers help people with physical and cognitive disabilities improve their abilities and quality of life. They work on prostheses, home, workplace, and transportation modifications, and assistive technology design that improves sitting and positioning, movement, and communication. To help people with cognitive impairments, rehabilitation engineers are developing hardware and software computer adaptations as well as cognitive aids.

Surgery Using Robotics

This includes the use of robotic and image processing devices to help a medical team plan and execute a surgery in real-time. These innovative procedures can reduce surgery's negative effects by allowing for smaller incisions, less trauma, and greater precision while also lowering expenses.

Physiology of Systems

This is the term for the area of biomedical engineering where engineering concepts, techniques, and instruments are utilized to achieve a thorough and integrated understanding of the function of live creatures ranging from bacteria to people. To analyze experimental data and formulate mathematical descriptions of physiological phenomena, computer modeling is used. Predictor models are employed in research to develop new experiments and refine our understanding. Living systems have highly controlled feedback control systems that can be investigated using cutting-edge methods. The biochemistry of metabolism and the regulation of limb motions are two examples.

A bachelor's degree in biomedical engineering normally needs four years of university study. After that, the biomedical engineer may pursue an entry-level engineering career in a medical device or pharmaceutical firm, a clinical engineering role in a hospital, or even a sales position in a biomaterials or biotechnology company. Many biomedical engineers will pursue graduate coursework in biomedical engineering or a related engineering subject, a master's degree in business administration, or an application to medical or dentistry school. A small percentage of biomedical engineers go on to law school to work in patent law and intellectual property linked to biomedical inventions.

BIOETHICS

 

BIOETHICS

Every day, decisions involving bioethical issues are made in a variety of situations, including patient-physician relationships, the treatment of human subjects in biomedical experimentation, the allocation of scarce medical resources, the complex questions surrounding the beginning and end of human life and the conduct of clinical medicine and life sciences research.

Hospitals and other healthcare institutions consult with ethicists. They've also advised federal and state governments on issues including ending life support, genetic testing, physician-assisted suicide, and other issues. Even in the commercial realm of science, bioethics has become a part of the landscape.

Biotechnology companies are increasingly consulting with biomedical ethicists about their business and research methods. More than 25 universities in the United States and Canada offer medical ethics degrees. In many cases, the subject is also covered in physician and other healthcare professional education programs. Many medical schools provide ethics courses that cover issues including moral decision-making theories and the ethical conduct of medical research.

MANY DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS

Bioethics is defined as follows, depending on who created the definition:

·         The study of the ethical and moral consequences of new biological discoveries and biomedical breakthroughs, such as genetic engineering and drug development.

·         The branch of ethics, philosophy, and social commentary concerned with life sciences and their possible social implications.

·         In the fields of biology and biotechnology, the study of value judgments relating to human behavior.

·         The investigation and evaluation of what is right and wrong in biological advances and activities such as genetic engineering, organ transplantation, and end-of-life care.

·         The study of the moral and ethical decisions that scientists and doctors must make in medical research and patient care.

·         Biology is linked with a variety of humanistic knowledge to form a science that establishes a system of medical and environmental goals for acceptable survival.

·         The study of moral and ethical issues relating to life, health, science, medicine, and the environment.

There is no easy definition for this extremely complicated issue. Even though there appear to be as many definitions as definers, most scientists and ethicists believe that bioethical debates revolve around the concept of "right vs. right," rather than "right vs. bad."

FRAMEWORKS OF ETHICS

Medical ethics can be traced back to several early codes of ethics, including the ancient Greek Hippocratic Oath for physicians and the Caraka Samhita, a Sanskrit text written in India around 2,000 years ago that urged physicians to "strive for the relief of the patient with all your heart and soul, day and night, however, you may be engaged." The code of ethics written by English physician Thomas Percival in the 18th century served as the foundation for the first code of ethics, established in 1846 by the founders of the American Medical Association; and the Nuremberg Code for research ethics on human subjects, which was established during the Nuremberg Trials.

This was founded at the end of World War II during the war crimes trials. The introduction of new medical and reproductive technology after the 1950s further compounded the moral and societal challenges surrounding scientific research and practice

Medical ethicists have attempted to build distinct ethical frameworks and methods to properly analyze medical issues and make decisions. Principles, or the Four Principles Approach, is a theory developed in the late 1970s by American philosopher Tom Beauchamp and American theologian James Childress.

In this system, biomedical ethical decisions are made by weighing the importance of four separate elements: (1) individual autonomy and the right to make their own decisions and beliefs; (2) the principle of beneficence, with the primary goal of helping people; (3) the related principle of nonmaleficence, or refraining from harming people; and (4) justice, or distributing burdens and benefits fairly. Beauchamp and Childress were also members of the 27-member committee that drafted the Department of Health and Human Services' major historical paper Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects. The Belmont Report (named after the conference center where it was created) was published in 1979 and established the values of respect, beneficence, and justice as the cornerstones for rules involving human participants in medical research.

While some medical ethicists adhere to principles, others use a case-based approach known as casuistry. When faced with a difficult bioethical situation, casuists try to imagine a similar but simpler scenario in which almost anybody could agree on a solution. Casuists work their way through a hypothetical issue by weighing solutions. There are numerous bioethical systems, including casuistry and principles. Each approach has its supporters, and disagreements and debates are common among the various schools of thought. Nonetheless, each strategy is an attempt to address sensitive, conflicting concerns that occur frequently in the complex and contentious field of medicine.

Medical advances have presented individuals, their families, and the health professionals who care for them with new and challenging moral choices. Scientists and physicians are confronted with new and exciting alternatives for saving lives, transferring organs, and expanding research, but they must also grapple with new and unpleasant decisions, such as who should receive scarce and critical treatment and how we define when life ends.

THE BIOETHICIST'S POSITION

While bioethics has its roots in philosophy, it now encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including law, medicine, biology, genetics, environmental toxicology, public health, pharmaceuticals, stem cell research, biotechnology, politics, sociology, and business. Bioethical challenges have become more widespread in recent years because new medical technology has overtaken his ability to comprehend their ramifications.

Bioethicists have traditionally dealt with tough medical issues, but their role has increased as an understanding of genetics and biotechnology has grown.

Cloning, the use of fetal tissues, and crop genetic engineering are all concerns that need ethical considerations. The recent explosion in biomedical, bioengineering, and biotechnology research has generated an unprecedented necessity for our society to tackle the new and difficult ethical issues that have arisen.

Bioethics is the study of growing moral dilemmas involving human health and biological systems and their analysis using the principles established by the community's value system. These principles don't always demand a single "moral" course of conduct, but they do provide a framework for weighing and deciding between competing possibilities.

DECISION-MAKING IN BIOETHICS

In bioethics, decision-making happens when an individual or group of individuals is faced with a bioethical issue that necessitates a choice between two or more seemingly opposing outcomes. Each of these conceivable possibilities frequently has both positive and bad implications. Bioethicists examine the following paradigms when making decisions:

Community versus. Individual

Individual wants and interests are measured against the needs and interests of the community under this paradigm.

Long-Term vs. Short-Term

The costs and benefits that will come in the short term are compared against the costs and advantages that will arise in the long run in this paradigm.

Mercy vs. Justice

The need for appropriate justice is evaluated against the need for appropriate charity in this paradigm.

Each of these paradigms denotes a distinct conflict between opposing values. The majority of decision-making strategies fit into one of three general categories:

·         Ends-Based Reasoning is based on the premise of "doing the most good for the most people."

·         Rule-Based Reasoning: Is guided by the rules that govern how people in the community act in general.

·         Concern for others serves as the guiding concept for making moral decisions.

CONSIDERATIONS OF ETHICS AND SOCIETY

Why should we be concerned with bioethical concerns? The rapid advancement of biotechnology is exceeding our ability as a society to comprehend how these new technologies will affect our lives. Cloning, stem cell research, in vitro fertilization, and prenatal diagnosis of genetic diseases are just a few of the important and wide-ranging concerns we're dealing with right now. Biotechnology advancements will have a significant impact on what it means to be human and how we spend our lives. Politics (public policy, law, and resource control), spirituality ("What is life?" and "What does it mean to be human?") and culture ("What implications do our genetic makeups reveal?" and "What are the implications of new technology for culture?") will all be affected.

The necessity for thoughtful engagement in bioethical decision-making has become increasingly urgent as a result of these recent, unprecedented advancements. Because the burden of creating accepted procedures lies on all of us, this need extends beyond the professional communities of the bioengineering and biotechnology industries to encompass all parts of society. Our society’s citizens must be intellectually prepared to tackle this challenge.

In its National Science Education Standards, the National Academy of Sciences has highlighted this obligation in a wide sense:

1.       Science and technology are vital social businesses, but they can only predict what might happen, not what should. The latter entails human judgments regarding the use of knowledge.

2.       Understanding basic scientific anciency concepts and principles should come before engaging in the active debate regarding the economics, policies, politics, and ethics of many science and technology-related concerns. Understanding science, on the other hand, will not solve local, national, or global problems.

3.       Social difficulties and obstacles can have an impact on scientific and technological progress. Examples of how social issues influence science and technology include funding priorities for specific health problems.

4.       Individuals and society must make decisions about ideas including new research and the adoption of new technology. Decisions entail weighing alternatives, risks, costs, and advantages, as well as determining who benefits and who suffers, who pays and who gains, and who bears the risks.

5.       Ethical decision-making requires us to consider the advantages and disadvantages of a situation from several perspectives. There is no "correct" or "incorrect" response. The focus is on the process of arriving at an acceptable solution that allows all stakeholders to participate.

A CONTINUAL CHALLENGE

Biotechnology issues can challenge profoundly held ethical, spiritual, and cultural ideas and traditions. Risk is linked to some ethical concerns. "What amount of danger is acceptable?" and "Who decides?" are two examples. and "Whose risk is it? “Individuals, as well as public health and ecosystems, are affected by these risks and benefits. What are the best uses for genetic alteration technology? Who, and under what circumstances? Are there certain activities that should never be permitted, even if the safety concerns can be addressed? Issues can also test our social and cultural beliefs about the intrinsic value of organisms, as well as our decisions about having children and starting families.

Throughout the twenty-first century, medical ethicists will encounter a variety of concerns, including developments in cloning technology, new knowledge of the human brain, and the amount of genetic data from the Human Genome Project. Global population shifts will have an impact on medicine and pose questions about medical ethics. The number of Americans over the age of 65 is predicted to double by 2020. The aging of the population is almost guaranteed to increase demand on the United States' healthcare system, and thus healthcare costs. And, as the population of elderly people grows, ethical challenges around end-of-life issues are likely to become increasingly common.

 

 

BIODIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY

Definition:

Biodiversity refers to the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and microbiological organisms that dwell on Earth, as well as the ecosystems in which they live. According to scientists, Earth is home to about 10 million diverse species.

Explanation:

Everything from food production to medical research is based on biodiversity. Daily, humans use at least 40,000 different plant and animal species. Many people still rely on wild species for some or all of their food, shelter, and clothing around the world. All of our tamed plants and animals descended from wild relatives. Furthermore, nearly 40% of medications used in the United States are derived from or manufactured from natural chemicals found in plants, animals, or microorganisms.

 An ecosystem is the collection of living species existing in a given environment, as well as the physical and environmental conditions that influence them. Ecosystems are essential to existence because they manage many of the chemical and climatic systems that provide us with clean air, clean water, and plenty of oxygen. For example, forests manage carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, create oxygen as a consequence of photosynthesis, and regulate rainfall and soil erosion. Ecosystems, in turn, rely on the health and vitality of the individual creatures that make up their composition. Even removing one species from an ecosystem can prevent it from functioning efficiently.

Perhaps biodiversity's greatest value has yet to be discovered. Only 1.75 million species have been identified and named by scientists, accounting for less than 20% of all species predicted to exist. Only a small percentage of those found have been investigated for potential medicinal, agricultural, or industrial value. Much of Earth's rich variety is rapidly vanishing, even before we realize it. Most biologists agree that life on Earth is currently experiencing the most severe extinction event since the demise of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. Plants, animals, fungus, and minute species like bacteria are all disappearing at frightening rates. The research focuses on biodiversity preservation and monitoring environmental quality and change.

BIODIVERSITY'S BENEFITS

Biodiversity is crucial to the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide. The following is a list of some of the biodiversity's benefits or services:

1.       Food, clean water, lumber, fiber, and genetic resources are examples of provisioning services.

2.       Climate, floods, illness, water quality, and pollination are all regulated services.

3.       Recreational, artistic, and spiritual benefits are all provided through cultural services.

4.       Soil formation and nutrient cycling are examples of supporting services.

 BIODIVERSITY TYPES:

There are three types of biodiversity: genetic diversity within species, species diversity across species, and ecological diversity between habitats (ecosystem diversity).

Genetic Variation

Every species on the planet is genetically linked to every other species. The closer two species are genetical, the more genetic information they share and the more similar they appear. Members of an organism's species, or organisms with which it has the potential to mate and have children, are its closest relatives. Members of a species share genes, which are biological information bits that affect how animals look, act, and live.

For example, whether they live in the same location or thousands of miles apart, one eastern grey squirrel shares the great majority of its genes with other eastern grey squirrels. Members of a species have intricate mating activities that allow them to recognize one another as possible mates.

In almost every ecosystem, there is a species that is comparable and closely related to it. Gray squirrels are located west of the Rocky Mountains, not east of them. Although western grey squirrels are more similar to their eastern counterparts than distinct, they do not share a common mating behavior. Eastern and western grey squirrels do not mate even when brought close together, hence there are two species.

Each species has other, distantly related species with which it has a common set of features. Gray squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, and prairie dogs are all members of the squirrel family because they have similar tooth numbers and shapes, as well as the similar skull and muscular architecture. All of these creatures are rodents, a wide group of animals with chisel-like incisor teeth that develop continually. All rodents are members of the mammalian family. Mammals have hair, milk-fed babies, and three bones in their middle ear.

All rodents are members of the mammalian family. Mammals have hair, milk-fed babies, and three bones in their middle ear. All mammals, in turn, are more distantly related to other vertebrates, or animals with backbones. These species are all mammals, but they all have the same cell structure as plants, fungi, and some microorganisms. Finally, ribonucleic acid (RNA) is found in all living organisms, and most also have deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (DNA).

While all species descend from a single common ancestor, species diverge over time and develop their unique characteristics, contributing to biodiversity.

Diverse Species

The diversity of species within a habitat or region is referred to as species diversity. Species are the fundamental units of biological taxonomy and, as such, the standard unit of biological diversity measurement. The word "species richness" refers to the number of different species found in a specific location. The total number of species on the planet is estimated to be between five and ten million, while only 1.75 million have been scientifically named.

 

Many species can be found in some ecosystems, such as rainforests and coral reefs. Tropical North and South America, for example, has over 85,000 blooming plant species, tropical and subtropical Asia has over 50,000, and tropical and subtropical Africa has approximately 35,000. Europe, on the other hand, has 11,300 vascular plants.

There are fewer species in some places, such as salt flats or dirty streams. Species are classified into families based on shared traits.

Ecological Variation:

The intricate network of diverse species present in particular ecosystems, as well as the dynamic interplay between them, is referred to as ecological variety. An ecosystem is made up of organisms from various species living nearby in a given area, as well as their interactions through the exchange of energy, nutrients, and matter. Interactions between organisms of different species result in these links. The sun is the ultimate source of energy in practically every ecosystem.

Plants transform the sun's light energy into chemical energy. When animals eat plants and are then devoured by other creatures, that energy travels through the system. Decomposing creatures provide energy to fungi, which release nutrients back into the soil. As a result, an ecosystem is a collection of living (microbes, plants, animals, and fungi) and nonliving (climate and chemicals) components linked by energy flow. Because each of Earth's ecosystems dissolves into the ecosystems around it, measuring ecological variety is challenging.

ISSUES CONNECTED

Agreements on Biodiversity

Concerns about environmental damage prompted various national and international agreements to be signed. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 1972 decided to create the UN Environment Programme. Several regional and worldwide agreements have been signed by governments to address specific issues such as wetlands protection and the regulation of international commerce in endangered species. These accords, together with limitations on harmful chemicals and pollutants, have slowed but not stopped the flood of destruction.

In 1975, the Convention on International Trafficking in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora was signed into law, making the trade of endangered animals and animal parts illegal. The Endangered Species Act was passed in 1973 in the United States to protect endangered or vulnerable species and their habitats.

The Brundtland Commission on Environment and Progress stated in 1987 that economic development must become less environmentally harmful. Then, in 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the Convention on Biological Diversity signed a set of legally binding accords.

It was the first global accord on biological diversity protection and sustainable usage. At that summit, more than 150 states signed the document, and more than 187 countries have ratified it since then. The treaty has three basic goals: biodiversity protection, sustainable use of biodiversity components, and equitable sharing of benefits emerging from commercial and other uses of genetic resources.

CONSIDERATIONS OF ETHICS AND SOCIETY

Human Effects

Most scientists agree with American evolutionary biologist Edward O. Wilson's estimate that Earth loses 27,000 species per year. His prediction is based on the rate at which ecosystems, particularly tropical forests and grasslands, are disappearing, as well as our understanding of the species that dwell in these environments. Only five times in Earth's history has there been such a high rate of extinction. Catastrophic physical calamities, such as climate change or meteorite impacts, devastated and changed global ecosystems, causing mass extinctions in the past.

The sixth extinction is similarly predominantly caused by ecological disruption, but this time the destroying agent is people rather than the physical environment. The human change of the Earth's surface has the potential to be as catastrophic as any previous great natural event.

The underlying cause of biodiversity loss is the human population growth, which has now reached seven billion people and is anticipated to double by 2050. Nearly half of all food, crops, medicines and other useful goods created by Earth's creatures are consumed by humans, yet more than one billion people lack access to sufficient fresh water. The issue is not just the sheer number of people; it is also the unequal allocation and utilization of resources.

Consumption of resources and other types of wealth on the globe must also be considered. According to some estimates, the average middle-class American consumes 30 times as much as someone in a developing country. To obtain an appropriate comparative evaluation of the influence of such industrialized nations on the world's ecosystems, the impact of the almost 300 million Americans must be multiplied by 30.

Human loss of natural habitats is the single greatest threat to global biodiversity. The human population has grown from roughly five million to six billion people since the introduction of agriculture about 10,000 years ago. Humans have drastically altered Earth during that time, particularly in the last several centuries.

The physical alteration of ecosystems has resulted from the conversion of forests, grasslands, and wetlands for agricultural reasons, as well as the expansion and growth of urban centers, the construction of dams and canals, highways, and railways.

Conservation

Positive approaches to stem the tide of the sixth mass extinction have been proposed and, to some extent, embraced as the scale and severity of biodiversity loss have been increasingly known. Several countries have passed legislation to safeguard endangered species.

 

In the last three decades, attention has turned from individual species preservation to the protection of broad swaths of habitat connected by corridors that allow animals to migrate between them. Thus, a campaign to rescue the spotted owl of the Pacific Northwest has evolved into a campaign to safeguard enormous swaths of old-growth forest.

However, no matter how promising these ideas are, conservation efforts will never succeed in the long run if the local economic demands of people living in and around threatened ecosystems are ignored. This is especially true in emerging countries, which contain the majority of the world's remaining undeveloped territory. International institutions such as the World Bank and the World Wildlife Fund initiated a drive at the end of the twentieth century to encourage all developing countries to set aside 10% of their forests as protected areas. However, for thousands of years, many populations living in those protected areas have relied on the rainforest for food and firewood. With few economic options, those communities may be left without enough food.

Conservation biology emphasizes interaction with individuals who are directly impacted by conservation efforts to address the problem. These biologists support these individuals to find sustainable economic alternatives to damaging land use and harvesting. Harvesting and marketing renewable rainforest products, such as tagua nuts and Brazil nuts (vegetable ivory seeds from palms), is one option. Rain forest communities may engage in sustainable rain forest logging operations, in which carefully selected trees are removed with minimal influence on the forest ecology, where protective measures allow. Others are looking into medicinal plants for drug development as a method to diversify and enhance their economies.

Conservation biologists also collaborate with established industries to create procedures that ensure the health and long-term viability of the resources they rely on. Conservation biologists, for example, collaborate with anglers to figure out how many fish they can catch without harming the population or the ecosystem as a whole. Trees, plants, animals, and other natural resources are harvested using the same techniques.

The conservation of genetic variation is another way of preserving biodiversity at the molecular level.

Around the world, efforts are being done to gather and conserve the DNA of endangered organisms. These collections, often known as gene banks, may contain frozen blood or tissue samples or, in certain situations, live organisms. Biologists use gene banks to expand a species' gene pool, improving the possibility that it will adapt to the environmental difficulties it faces. Many zoos, aquariums, and botanical gardens collaborate to ensure the genetic variety of endangered animals and plants in captivity, such as the giant panda, orangutan, and rose periwinkle. Captive animals are bred with wild populations or periodically released to enhance genetic variety by breeding freely with members of the wild population. These gene banks are also critical for replenishing crop genetic variety, allowing plant breeders and bioengineers to improve their stocks' resistance to disease and changing climate conditions.