Biomedical engineering

 

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

Definition:

Biomedical engineering is the study and solution of biological and medical problems using standard engineering ideas and design techniques.

Biomedical engineers are needed for a variety of tasks, including designing instruments, devices, and software, combining knowledge from a variety of technological sources to develop novel processes, and conducting clinical research.

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING SUBDISCIPLINES

Although there are several subspecialties in biomedical engineering, they rarely "operate in isolation." Biomedical engineers who work in one area frequently draw on the knowledge of biomedical engineers who specialize in other fields. Studies on anatomy, bone biomechanics, gait analysis, and biomaterial compatibility, for example, considerably improve the design of an artificial hip. The forces acting on the hip can be factored into the prosthesis design and material choices. Similarly, knowledge of the behavior of the human musculoskeletal system is used in the design of systems to electrically stimulate the paralyzed muscle to move in a controlled manner. The biomaterials engineer is responsible for selecting the suitable materials for these devices.

Bioinformatics

This entails creating and using computer technologies to collect and evaluate medical and biological data. Bioinformatics work may entail employing advanced tools to organize and search databases of gene sequences with millions of entries.

Bioinstrumentation

This is the use of electronics and measurement techniques to create gadgets that aid in disease detection and therapy. Computers are an important aspect of bioinstrumentation, from the microprocessor in a single-purpose instrument that performs a range of modest jobs to the microcomputer in a medical imaging system that processes vast amounts of data.

Biomaterials

Both biological tissue and artificial materials for implantation are included. To create implant materials, it is necessary to understand the properties and behavior of live materials. One of the most difficult issues a biomedical engineer faces is choosing an acceptable material to install in the human body. Biomaterials must be nontoxic, noncarcinogenic (do not cause cancer), chemically inert, stable, and mechanically robust enough to endure lifetime stresses. Living cells are even included in newer biomaterials to create a true biological and mechanical match for living tissue.

Biomechanics

Classic mechanical engineering is used for biological or medical problems. Motion, material deformation, flow within the body and in devices, and chemical ingredient transport through biological and synthetic media and membranes are all studied. Biomechanics has led to the development of artificial hearts, heart valves, and artificial joint replacements, as well as a greater knowledge of the function of the heart, lungs, blood vessels, capillaries, musculoskeletal systems bone, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.

BioMEMS

Mechanical parts, sensors, actuators, and electronics are all integrated on a silicon chip in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The development and application of MEMS in medicine and biology are known as BioMEMS. The creation of microrobots that could one day do surgery within the body and the fabrication of tiny devices that could be implanted inside the body to administer medications on demand are two examples of BioMEMS.

Processing of Biosignals

For diagnostic and therapeutic applications, this entails collecting relevant information from biological signals. This may include analyzing cardiac signals to see if a patient is at risk of sudden cardiac death, developing speech recognition systems that can cope with background noise, or recognizing brain signal patterns that can be used to control a computer.

Biotechnology

This is a collection of strong technologies that use living beings (or parts of organisms) to create or modify things, improve plants or animals, or create microbes for specialized use. Traditional animal and plant breeding techniques, as well as the use of yeast in the production of bread, beer, wine, and cheese, were among the first biotech endeavors. The industrial usage of recombinant DNA and cell fusion, and evolutionary bioprocessing processes that can be used to help fix genetic abnormalities in humans, are examples of modern biotechnology. It also includes bioremediation, which entails the breakdown of harmful substances using living organisms.

Genetic, cellular, and tissue engineering

This includes more recent initiatives to tackle biomedical issues at the molecular level. These fields study the anatomy, biochemistry, and mechanics of cellular and subcellular structures to better understand disease processes and intervene at precise locations. Miniature devices with these properties can administer substances that activate or inhibit biological processes at exact target sites, promoting healing or slowing disease development.

Engineering in Medicine

This is the use of technology in hospitals for health treatment. Along with physicians, nurses, and other hospital employees, the clinical engineer is a member of the health care team. Clinical engineers are in charge of creating and maintaining computer databases of medical instrumentation and equipment information, as well as purchasing and using advanced medical instruments. They may also collaborate with clinicians to modify instrumentation to the physician's and hospital's specific needs, which frequently entails the integration of instruments with computer systems and custom software for instrument control, data collecting, and analysis. Clinical engineers assist in the implementation of cutting-edge technologies in health care.

Imaging in Medicine

To create an image, this combines knowledge of a specific physical phenomenon (such as sound, radiation, or magnetism) with high-speed electronic data processing, analysis, and presentation. These images are frequently obtained by minimum or noninvasive methods, making them less uncomfortable and repeatable than invasive treatments. Furthermore, radiology is the use of radioactive substances like X-rays, magnetic fields, and ultrasound to make images of the body, its organs, and its structures. These images can help doctors diagnose and cure diseases, as well as direct them during image-guided surgery.

Micro- and nanotechnology are two types of technology.

Microtechnology is concerned with the development and application of devices on the micrometer scale (one-thousandth of a millimeter, or about 1/50 of the diameter of a human hair), whereas nanotechnology is concerned with devices on the nanometer scale (about 1/50,000 of a human hair, or 10 times the diameter of a hydrogen atom). These fields include the invention of minuscule force sensors that can detect changing tissue properties, allowing surgeons to remove only diseased tissue, and nanometer-length cantilever beams that bend with cardiac protein levels, allowing doctors to diagnose heart attacks more quickly.

Engineering and Neural Systems

The replacement or restoration of lost sensory and motor abilities (for example, retinal implants to partially restore sight or electrical stimulation of paralyzed muscles to assist a person in standing), the study of the complexities of neural systems in nature, and the development of neurorobotics (robot arms controlled by signals from the motor cortex) are all areas covered by this emerging interdisciplinary field (developing brain-implantable microelectronics with high computing power, for example).

Bioengineering in Orthopedics

This is a field in which engineering and computational mechanics methods have been used to better understand the function of bones, joints, and muscles, as well as to create artificial joint replacements. Orthopedic bioengineers study the friction, lubrication, and wear characteristics of natural and artificial joints, conduct musculoskeletal stress analyses, and develop artificial biomaterials (biologic and synthetic) to replace bones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons, meniscus, and intervertebral discs. Gait and motion assessments are frequently performed for sports performance and patient outcomes following surgical operations.

Engineering for Rehabilitation

This is a rapidly expanding field of biomedical engineering. Rehabilitation engineers help people with physical and cognitive disabilities improve their abilities and quality of life. They work on prostheses, home, workplace, and transportation modifications, and assistive technology design that improves sitting and positioning, movement, and communication. To help people with cognitive impairments, rehabilitation engineers are developing hardware and software computer adaptations as well as cognitive aids.

Surgery Using Robotics

This includes the use of robotic and image processing devices to help a medical team plan and execute a surgery in real-time. These innovative procedures can reduce surgery's negative effects by allowing for smaller incisions, less trauma, and greater precision while also lowering expenses.

Physiology of Systems

This is the term for the area of biomedical engineering where engineering concepts, techniques, and instruments are utilized to achieve a thorough and integrated understanding of the function of live creatures ranging from bacteria to people. To analyze experimental data and formulate mathematical descriptions of physiological phenomena, computer modeling is used. Predictor models are employed in research to develop new experiments and refine our understanding. Living systems have highly controlled feedback control systems that can be investigated using cutting-edge methods. The biochemistry of metabolism and the regulation of limb motions are two examples.

A bachelor's degree in biomedical engineering normally needs four years of university study. After that, the biomedical engineer may pursue an entry-level engineering career in a medical device or pharmaceutical firm, a clinical engineering role in a hospital, or even a sales position in a biomaterials or biotechnology company. Many biomedical engineers will pursue graduate coursework in biomedical engineering or a related engineering subject, a master's degree in business administration, or an application to medical or dentistry school. A small percentage of biomedical engineers go on to law school to work in patent law and intellectual property linked to biomedical inventions.

BIOETHICS

 

BIOETHICS

Every day, decisions involving bioethical issues are made in a variety of situations, including patient-physician relationships, the treatment of human subjects in biomedical experimentation, the allocation of scarce medical resources, the complex questions surrounding the beginning and end of human life and the conduct of clinical medicine and life sciences research.

Hospitals and other healthcare institutions consult with ethicists. They've also advised federal and state governments on issues including ending life support, genetic testing, physician-assisted suicide, and other issues. Even in the commercial realm of science, bioethics has become a part of the landscape.

Biotechnology companies are increasingly consulting with biomedical ethicists about their business and research methods. More than 25 universities in the United States and Canada offer medical ethics degrees. In many cases, the subject is also covered in physician and other healthcare professional education programs. Many medical schools provide ethics courses that cover issues including moral decision-making theories and the ethical conduct of medical research.

MANY DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS

Bioethics is defined as follows, depending on who created the definition:

·         The study of the ethical and moral consequences of new biological discoveries and biomedical breakthroughs, such as genetic engineering and drug development.

·         The branch of ethics, philosophy, and social commentary concerned with life sciences and their possible social implications.

·         In the fields of biology and biotechnology, the study of value judgments relating to human behavior.

·         The investigation and evaluation of what is right and wrong in biological advances and activities such as genetic engineering, organ transplantation, and end-of-life care.

·         The study of the moral and ethical decisions that scientists and doctors must make in medical research and patient care.

·         Biology is linked with a variety of humanistic knowledge to form a science that establishes a system of medical and environmental goals for acceptable survival.

·         The study of moral and ethical issues relating to life, health, science, medicine, and the environment.

There is no easy definition for this extremely complicated issue. Even though there appear to be as many definitions as definers, most scientists and ethicists believe that bioethical debates revolve around the concept of "right vs. right," rather than "right vs. bad."

FRAMEWORKS OF ETHICS

Medical ethics can be traced back to several early codes of ethics, including the ancient Greek Hippocratic Oath for physicians and the Caraka Samhita, a Sanskrit text written in India around 2,000 years ago that urged physicians to "strive for the relief of the patient with all your heart and soul, day and night, however, you may be engaged." The code of ethics written by English physician Thomas Percival in the 18th century served as the foundation for the first code of ethics, established in 1846 by the founders of the American Medical Association; and the Nuremberg Code for research ethics on human subjects, which was established during the Nuremberg Trials.

This was founded at the end of World War II during the war crimes trials. The introduction of new medical and reproductive technology after the 1950s further compounded the moral and societal challenges surrounding scientific research and practice

Medical ethicists have attempted to build distinct ethical frameworks and methods to properly analyze medical issues and make decisions. Principles, or the Four Principles Approach, is a theory developed in the late 1970s by American philosopher Tom Beauchamp and American theologian James Childress.

In this system, biomedical ethical decisions are made by weighing the importance of four separate elements: (1) individual autonomy and the right to make their own decisions and beliefs; (2) the principle of beneficence, with the primary goal of helping people; (3) the related principle of nonmaleficence, or refraining from harming people; and (4) justice, or distributing burdens and benefits fairly. Beauchamp and Childress were also members of the 27-member committee that drafted the Department of Health and Human Services' major historical paper Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects. The Belmont Report (named after the conference center where it was created) was published in 1979 and established the values of respect, beneficence, and justice as the cornerstones for rules involving human participants in medical research.

While some medical ethicists adhere to principles, others use a case-based approach known as casuistry. When faced with a difficult bioethical situation, casuists try to imagine a similar but simpler scenario in which almost anybody could agree on a solution. Casuists work their way through a hypothetical issue by weighing solutions. There are numerous bioethical systems, including casuistry and principles. Each approach has its supporters, and disagreements and debates are common among the various schools of thought. Nonetheless, each strategy is an attempt to address sensitive, conflicting concerns that occur frequently in the complex and contentious field of medicine.

Medical advances have presented individuals, their families, and the health professionals who care for them with new and challenging moral choices. Scientists and physicians are confronted with new and exciting alternatives for saving lives, transferring organs, and expanding research, but they must also grapple with new and unpleasant decisions, such as who should receive scarce and critical treatment and how we define when life ends.

THE BIOETHICIST'S POSITION

While bioethics has its roots in philosophy, it now encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including law, medicine, biology, genetics, environmental toxicology, public health, pharmaceuticals, stem cell research, biotechnology, politics, sociology, and business. Bioethical challenges have become more widespread in recent years because new medical technology has overtaken his ability to comprehend their ramifications.

Bioethicists have traditionally dealt with tough medical issues, but their role has increased as an understanding of genetics and biotechnology has grown.

Cloning, the use of fetal tissues, and crop genetic engineering are all concerns that need ethical considerations. The recent explosion in biomedical, bioengineering, and biotechnology research has generated an unprecedented necessity for our society to tackle the new and difficult ethical issues that have arisen.

Bioethics is the study of growing moral dilemmas involving human health and biological systems and their analysis using the principles established by the community's value system. These principles don't always demand a single "moral" course of conduct, but they do provide a framework for weighing and deciding between competing possibilities.

DECISION-MAKING IN BIOETHICS

In bioethics, decision-making happens when an individual or group of individuals is faced with a bioethical issue that necessitates a choice between two or more seemingly opposing outcomes. Each of these conceivable possibilities frequently has both positive and bad implications. Bioethicists examine the following paradigms when making decisions:

Community versus. Individual

Individual wants and interests are measured against the needs and interests of the community under this paradigm.

Long-Term vs. Short-Term

The costs and benefits that will come in the short term are compared against the costs and advantages that will arise in the long run in this paradigm.

Mercy vs. Justice

The need for appropriate justice is evaluated against the need for appropriate charity in this paradigm.

Each of these paradigms denotes a distinct conflict between opposing values. The majority of decision-making strategies fit into one of three general categories:

·         Ends-Based Reasoning is based on the premise of "doing the most good for the most people."

·         Rule-Based Reasoning: Is guided by the rules that govern how people in the community act in general.

·         Concern for others serves as the guiding concept for making moral decisions.

CONSIDERATIONS OF ETHICS AND SOCIETY

Why should we be concerned with bioethical concerns? The rapid advancement of biotechnology is exceeding our ability as a society to comprehend how these new technologies will affect our lives. Cloning, stem cell research, in vitro fertilization, and prenatal diagnosis of genetic diseases are just a few of the important and wide-ranging concerns we're dealing with right now. Biotechnology advancements will have a significant impact on what it means to be human and how we spend our lives. Politics (public policy, law, and resource control), spirituality ("What is life?" and "What does it mean to be human?") and culture ("What implications do our genetic makeups reveal?" and "What are the implications of new technology for culture?") will all be affected.

The necessity for thoughtful engagement in bioethical decision-making has become increasingly urgent as a result of these recent, unprecedented advancements. Because the burden of creating accepted procedures lies on all of us, this need extends beyond the professional communities of the bioengineering and biotechnology industries to encompass all parts of society. Our society’s citizens must be intellectually prepared to tackle this challenge.

In its National Science Education Standards, the National Academy of Sciences has highlighted this obligation in a wide sense:

1.       Science and technology are vital social businesses, but they can only predict what might happen, not what should. The latter entails human judgments regarding the use of knowledge.

2.       Understanding basic scientific anciency concepts and principles should come before engaging in the active debate regarding the economics, policies, politics, and ethics of many science and technology-related concerns. Understanding science, on the other hand, will not solve local, national, or global problems.

3.       Social difficulties and obstacles can have an impact on scientific and technological progress. Examples of how social issues influence science and technology include funding priorities for specific health problems.

4.       Individuals and society must make decisions about ideas including new research and the adoption of new technology. Decisions entail weighing alternatives, risks, costs, and advantages, as well as determining who benefits and who suffers, who pays and who gains, and who bears the risks.

5.       Ethical decision-making requires us to consider the advantages and disadvantages of a situation from several perspectives. There is no "correct" or "incorrect" response. The focus is on the process of arriving at an acceptable solution that allows all stakeholders to participate.

A CONTINUAL CHALLENGE

Biotechnology issues can challenge profoundly held ethical, spiritual, and cultural ideas and traditions. Risk is linked to some ethical concerns. "What amount of danger is acceptable?" and "Who decides?" are two examples. and "Whose risk is it? “Individuals, as well as public health and ecosystems, are affected by these risks and benefits. What are the best uses for genetic alteration technology? Who, and under what circumstances? Are there certain activities that should never be permitted, even if the safety concerns can be addressed? Issues can also test our social and cultural beliefs about the intrinsic value of organisms, as well as our decisions about having children and starting families.

Throughout the twenty-first century, medical ethicists will encounter a variety of concerns, including developments in cloning technology, new knowledge of the human brain, and the amount of genetic data from the Human Genome Project. Global population shifts will have an impact on medicine and pose questions about medical ethics. The number of Americans over the age of 65 is predicted to double by 2020. The aging of the population is almost guaranteed to increase demand on the United States' healthcare system, and thus healthcare costs. And, as the population of elderly people grows, ethical challenges around end-of-life issues are likely to become increasingly common.

 

 

BIODIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY

Definition:

Biodiversity refers to the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and microbiological organisms that dwell on Earth, as well as the ecosystems in which they live. According to scientists, Earth is home to about 10 million diverse species.

Explanation:

Everything from food production to medical research is based on biodiversity. Daily, humans use at least 40,000 different plant and animal species. Many people still rely on wild species for some or all of their food, shelter, and clothing around the world. All of our tamed plants and animals descended from wild relatives. Furthermore, nearly 40% of medications used in the United States are derived from or manufactured from natural chemicals found in plants, animals, or microorganisms.

 An ecosystem is the collection of living species existing in a given environment, as well as the physical and environmental conditions that influence them. Ecosystems are essential to existence because they manage many of the chemical and climatic systems that provide us with clean air, clean water, and plenty of oxygen. For example, forests manage carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, create oxygen as a consequence of photosynthesis, and regulate rainfall and soil erosion. Ecosystems, in turn, rely on the health and vitality of the individual creatures that make up their composition. Even removing one species from an ecosystem can prevent it from functioning efficiently.

Perhaps biodiversity's greatest value has yet to be discovered. Only 1.75 million species have been identified and named by scientists, accounting for less than 20% of all species predicted to exist. Only a small percentage of those found have been investigated for potential medicinal, agricultural, or industrial value. Much of Earth's rich variety is rapidly vanishing, even before we realize it. Most biologists agree that life on Earth is currently experiencing the most severe extinction event since the demise of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. Plants, animals, fungus, and minute species like bacteria are all disappearing at frightening rates. The research focuses on biodiversity preservation and monitoring environmental quality and change.

BIODIVERSITY'S BENEFITS

Biodiversity is crucial to the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide. The following is a list of some of the biodiversity's benefits or services:

1.       Food, clean water, lumber, fiber, and genetic resources are examples of provisioning services.

2.       Climate, floods, illness, water quality, and pollination are all regulated services.

3.       Recreational, artistic, and spiritual benefits are all provided through cultural services.

4.       Soil formation and nutrient cycling are examples of supporting services.

 BIODIVERSITY TYPES:

There are three types of biodiversity: genetic diversity within species, species diversity across species, and ecological diversity between habitats (ecosystem diversity).

Genetic Variation

Every species on the planet is genetically linked to every other species. The closer two species are genetical, the more genetic information they share and the more similar they appear. Members of an organism's species, or organisms with which it has the potential to mate and have children, are its closest relatives. Members of a species share genes, which are biological information bits that affect how animals look, act, and live.

For example, whether they live in the same location or thousands of miles apart, one eastern grey squirrel shares the great majority of its genes with other eastern grey squirrels. Members of a species have intricate mating activities that allow them to recognize one another as possible mates.

In almost every ecosystem, there is a species that is comparable and closely related to it. Gray squirrels are located west of the Rocky Mountains, not east of them. Although western grey squirrels are more similar to their eastern counterparts than distinct, they do not share a common mating behavior. Eastern and western grey squirrels do not mate even when brought close together, hence there are two species.

Each species has other, distantly related species with which it has a common set of features. Gray squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, and prairie dogs are all members of the squirrel family because they have similar tooth numbers and shapes, as well as the similar skull and muscular architecture. All of these creatures are rodents, a wide group of animals with chisel-like incisor teeth that develop continually. All rodents are members of the mammalian family. Mammals have hair, milk-fed babies, and three bones in their middle ear.

All rodents are members of the mammalian family. Mammals have hair, milk-fed babies, and three bones in their middle ear. All mammals, in turn, are more distantly related to other vertebrates, or animals with backbones. These species are all mammals, but they all have the same cell structure as plants, fungi, and some microorganisms. Finally, ribonucleic acid (RNA) is found in all living organisms, and most also have deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (DNA).

While all species descend from a single common ancestor, species diverge over time and develop their unique characteristics, contributing to biodiversity.

Diverse Species

The diversity of species within a habitat or region is referred to as species diversity. Species are the fundamental units of biological taxonomy and, as such, the standard unit of biological diversity measurement. The word "species richness" refers to the number of different species found in a specific location. The total number of species on the planet is estimated to be between five and ten million, while only 1.75 million have been scientifically named.

 

Many species can be found in some ecosystems, such as rainforests and coral reefs. Tropical North and South America, for example, has over 85,000 blooming plant species, tropical and subtropical Asia has over 50,000, and tropical and subtropical Africa has approximately 35,000. Europe, on the other hand, has 11,300 vascular plants.

There are fewer species in some places, such as salt flats or dirty streams. Species are classified into families based on shared traits.

Ecological Variation:

The intricate network of diverse species present in particular ecosystems, as well as the dynamic interplay between them, is referred to as ecological variety. An ecosystem is made up of organisms from various species living nearby in a given area, as well as their interactions through the exchange of energy, nutrients, and matter. Interactions between organisms of different species result in these links. The sun is the ultimate source of energy in practically every ecosystem.

Plants transform the sun's light energy into chemical energy. When animals eat plants and are then devoured by other creatures, that energy travels through the system. Decomposing creatures provide energy to fungi, which release nutrients back into the soil. As a result, an ecosystem is a collection of living (microbes, plants, animals, and fungi) and nonliving (climate and chemicals) components linked by energy flow. Because each of Earth's ecosystems dissolves into the ecosystems around it, measuring ecological variety is challenging.

ISSUES CONNECTED

Agreements on Biodiversity

Concerns about environmental damage prompted various national and international agreements to be signed. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 1972 decided to create the UN Environment Programme. Several regional and worldwide agreements have been signed by governments to address specific issues such as wetlands protection and the regulation of international commerce in endangered species. These accords, together with limitations on harmful chemicals and pollutants, have slowed but not stopped the flood of destruction.

In 1975, the Convention on International Trafficking in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora was signed into law, making the trade of endangered animals and animal parts illegal. The Endangered Species Act was passed in 1973 in the United States to protect endangered or vulnerable species and their habitats.

The Brundtland Commission on Environment and Progress stated in 1987 that economic development must become less environmentally harmful. Then, in 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the Convention on Biological Diversity signed a set of legally binding accords.

It was the first global accord on biological diversity protection and sustainable usage. At that summit, more than 150 states signed the document, and more than 187 countries have ratified it since then. The treaty has three basic goals: biodiversity protection, sustainable use of biodiversity components, and equitable sharing of benefits emerging from commercial and other uses of genetic resources.

CONSIDERATIONS OF ETHICS AND SOCIETY

Human Effects

Most scientists agree with American evolutionary biologist Edward O. Wilson's estimate that Earth loses 27,000 species per year. His prediction is based on the rate at which ecosystems, particularly tropical forests and grasslands, are disappearing, as well as our understanding of the species that dwell in these environments. Only five times in Earth's history has there been such a high rate of extinction. Catastrophic physical calamities, such as climate change or meteorite impacts, devastated and changed global ecosystems, causing mass extinctions in the past.

The sixth extinction is similarly predominantly caused by ecological disruption, but this time the destroying agent is people rather than the physical environment. The human change of the Earth's surface has the potential to be as catastrophic as any previous great natural event.

The underlying cause of biodiversity loss is the human population growth, which has now reached seven billion people and is anticipated to double by 2050. Nearly half of all food, crops, medicines and other useful goods created by Earth's creatures are consumed by humans, yet more than one billion people lack access to sufficient fresh water. The issue is not just the sheer number of people; it is also the unequal allocation and utilization of resources.

Consumption of resources and other types of wealth on the globe must also be considered. According to some estimates, the average middle-class American consumes 30 times as much as someone in a developing country. To obtain an appropriate comparative evaluation of the influence of such industrialized nations on the world's ecosystems, the impact of the almost 300 million Americans must be multiplied by 30.

Human loss of natural habitats is the single greatest threat to global biodiversity. The human population has grown from roughly five million to six billion people since the introduction of agriculture about 10,000 years ago. Humans have drastically altered Earth during that time, particularly in the last several centuries.

The physical alteration of ecosystems has resulted from the conversion of forests, grasslands, and wetlands for agricultural reasons, as well as the expansion and growth of urban centers, the construction of dams and canals, highways, and railways.

Conservation

Positive approaches to stem the tide of the sixth mass extinction have been proposed and, to some extent, embraced as the scale and severity of biodiversity loss have been increasingly known. Several countries have passed legislation to safeguard endangered species.

 

In the last three decades, attention has turned from individual species preservation to the protection of broad swaths of habitat connected by corridors that allow animals to migrate between them. Thus, a campaign to rescue the spotted owl of the Pacific Northwest has evolved into a campaign to safeguard enormous swaths of old-growth forest.

However, no matter how promising these ideas are, conservation efforts will never succeed in the long run if the local economic demands of people living in and around threatened ecosystems are ignored. This is especially true in emerging countries, which contain the majority of the world's remaining undeveloped territory. International institutions such as the World Bank and the World Wildlife Fund initiated a drive at the end of the twentieth century to encourage all developing countries to set aside 10% of their forests as protected areas. However, for thousands of years, many populations living in those protected areas have relied on the rainforest for food and firewood. With few economic options, those communities may be left without enough food.

Conservation biology emphasizes interaction with individuals who are directly impacted by conservation efforts to address the problem. These biologists support these individuals to find sustainable economic alternatives to damaging land use and harvesting. Harvesting and marketing renewable rainforest products, such as tagua nuts and Brazil nuts (vegetable ivory seeds from palms), is one option. Rain forest communities may engage in sustainable rain forest logging operations, in which carefully selected trees are removed with minimal influence on the forest ecology, where protective measures allow. Others are looking into medicinal plants for drug development as a method to diversify and enhance their economies.

Conservation biologists also collaborate with established industries to create procedures that ensure the health and long-term viability of the resources they rely on. Conservation biologists, for example, collaborate with anglers to figure out how many fish they can catch without harming the population or the ecosystem as a whole. Trees, plants, animals, and other natural resources are harvested using the same techniques.

The conservation of genetic variation is another way of preserving biodiversity at the molecular level.

Around the world, efforts are being done to gather and conserve the DNA of endangered organisms. These collections, often known as gene banks, may contain frozen blood or tissue samples or, in certain situations, live organisms. Biologists use gene banks to expand a species' gene pool, improving the possibility that it will adapt to the environmental difficulties it faces. Many zoos, aquariums, and botanical gardens collaborate to ensure the genetic variety of endangered animals and plants in captivity, such as the giant panda, orangutan, and rose periwinkle. Captive animals are bred with wild populations or periodically released to enhance genetic variety by breeding freely with members of the wild population. These gene banks are also critical for replenishing crop genetic variety, allowing plant breeders and bioengineers to improve their stocks' resistance to disease and changing climate conditions.

 

 

BIOCHEMISTRY

 

BIOCHEMISTRY

Definition:

The study of the compounds contained in living beings and the chemical reactions that enhance biological activities is known as biochemistry.

Explanation:

Biochemistry is a part of both chemistry and biology that is considered one of the molecular sciences; the prefix "bio-" originates from bios, the Greek word for "life." Biochemistry's fundamental goal is to comprehend the structure and function of biomolecules. These are the organic (carbon-containing) chemicals that make up the living cell's numerous sections and carry out the chemical reactions that allow it to grow, maintain, and reproduce itself, as well as use and store energy.

For centuries, scientists believed that organic substances could only be created in the bodies of animals and plants under the influence of the vital force. By synthesizing urea, an organic substance made up of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, in the lab in 1828, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler challenged this long-held notion. Anselme Payen, a French chemist, developed the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in the lab five years later. With key discoveries concerning metabolic pathways in cells and DNA and RNA replication, as well as the introduction of novel techniques like chromatography, X-ray diffraction, spectroscopy, and electron microscopy, the study of biochemistry exploded in the twentieth century.

Each of our cells is a little city with all of the regular municipal functions. Each cell generates and consumes energy, communicates with other cells in a variety of ways, constructs structures, and eliminates waste. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that occur within a live cell or organism that are required for life to continue. Cells include a large assortment of biomolecules that are constantly changing and adapting to execute these many metabolic tasks. The vast majority of these biomolecules are classified as nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, or lipids.

Nucleic acids are biological macromolecules with a large molecular weight made up of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) (RNA). Nucleic acids are important for storing and transmitting genetic information in all living cells and viruses. They serve as a guide for other cell components when creating proteins.

Proteins are huge molecules made up of tiny amino acid subunits. A cell can make thousands of different proteins out of only 20 amino acids, each with a highly specific function in the cell. The enzymes, which are the cell's "worker" molecules, are the proteins that biochemists are most interested in. These enzymes operate as catalysts or promoters of chemical processes.

Carbohydrates are the cell's basic fuel molecules. They have almost equal proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Photosynthesis is a process through which green plants and microbes convert carbon dioxide, water, and sunshine into simple carbohydrates (sugars). Animals, on the other hand, get their carbs from food. When a cell has carbs, it can either break them down for chemical energy or use them as a raw material to make other macromolecules.

Lipids are fatty molecules that have many functions within the cell. Some are stored as high-energy fuel, while others are necessary components of the cell membrane. Cells also include a variety of different biomolecules. These substances perform a variety of functions, including carrying energy within the cell, utilizing the energy of sunlight to fuel chemical reactions, and acting as cofactors for enzyme activation. One of the main goals of biochemistry is to get a thorough understanding of metabolism to predict and manage cell changes. Treatments for various metabolic illnesses, antibiotics to battle germs, and strategies to increase industrial and agricultural output have all resulted from biochemical research. The application of genetic engineering techniques has aided these advancements in recent years.

Other subdisciplines

Biology, Molecular

The study of DNA and RNA replication and related processes.

Biology of Cells

Cell biology is the study of all cell functions and their interactions with other cells.

Genetics

Gene function and behavior are investigated.

Because biochemistry is such a large field with so many applications, the subject knowledge and abilities gained from studying it can lead to a variety of careers. Laboratories in federal and state government agencies use experienced employees in basic research programs and the analysis of food, drug, air, water, waste, and animal tissue samples. Drug companies conduct basic research on disease causes as well as applied research to generate disease-fighting medications. Bachelor of science graduates is hired by biotechnology firms with interests in the environment, energy, human health care, agriculture, and animal health for research, quality control, clinical research, manufacturing/production, and information systems. Research labs, universities, and medical institutes are continuously in need of technicians. A biochemistry bachelor's degree can be used to pursue medical, dental, veterinary, law, or business school. Some students use their education to pursue professions in biotechnology, toxicology, biomedical engineering, clinical chemistry, plant pathology, animal science, and other sectors.

Animal Biotechnology

 

Animal biotechnology

 

The use of science and engineering to improve living organisms is known as animal biotechnology. The purpose is to develop microorganisms for specific agricultural applications, as well as to make products and improve animals.

Creating transgenic animals (animals having one or more genes introduced by human intervention), employing gene knockout technology to create animals with a specific inactivated gene, and making virtually identical animals using somatic cell nuclear transfer are all examples of animal biotechnology (or cloning).

AN Comprehensive HISTORY

Animal biotechnology as we know it now has a lengthy history. Traditional breeding procedures, which date back to 5000 B.C.E., were among the first biotechnology techniques used. Crossing different animal strains (known as hybridizing) to develop more genetic variability is one of these strategies. The children of these crosses are then selectively bred to produce the most desirable features possible. For the past 3,000 years, female horses have been bred with male donkeys to produce mules, and male horses with female donkeys to produce hinnies, both for usage as work animals. This approach is still in use today.

When American biochemist James Watson and British biophysicist Francis Crick unveiled his double-helix model of DNA in 1953, the modern era of biotechnology began. Following that, in the 1960s, Swiss microbiologist Werner Arber discovered specific enzymes in bacteria known as restriction enzymes. These enzymes precisely cut the DNA strands of any creature. In 1973, American geneticist Stanley Cohen and American biochemist Herbert Boyer used restriction enzymes to extract a specific gene from one bacterium and put it into another. That was the start of recombinant DNA technology, also known as genetic engineering. Genes from other creatures were first transferred to bacteria in 1977, paving the way for the first human gene transfer.

The technology involved

The science of genetic engineering is used in animal biotechnology nowadays. Other technologies utilized in animal biotechnology fall under the umbrella of genetic engineerings, such as transgenics and cloning.

 

Transgenics

The transfer of a specific gene from one organism to another is known as transgenics (also known as recombinant DNA). Gene splicing is a technique for introducing one or more genes from one organism into another. When the second organism absorbs the new DNA into its genetic material, a transgenic animal is born.

DNA cannot be transported directly from the donor organism to the recipient organism, or the host, in gene splicing. Instead, the donor DNA must be clipped and pasted, or recombined, into a suitable fragment of DNA from a vector, which is an organism capable of carrying the donor DNA into the host. The host organism is usually a quickly growing microorganism, such as a harmless bacterium, that acts as a factory for duplicating the recombined DNA in enormous quantities. The resulting protein can then be extracted from the host and employed in humans, other animals, plants, microbes, or viruses as a genetically designed product. Donor DNA can be injected directly into an organism using techniques such as cell injection through the cell walls of plants or into an animal's fertilized egg

By changing the protein makeup of the organism, this gene transfer changes its characteristics. Proteins, such as enzymes and hormones, play a variety of roles in organisms. Through the creation of proteins, individual genes influence an animal's features.

Cloning

Researchers employ reproductive cloning procedures to create numerous copies of mammals that are virtually exact replicas of other animals, such as transgenic animals, genetically superior animals, and animals that produce large amounts of milk or have another desirable attribute. Since the first cloned animal, a sheep named Dolly, in 1996, cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, horses, mules, cats, rats, and mice have been created.

Somatic cell nuclear transfer is the first step in reproductive cloning (SCNT). Scientists use SCNT to replace the nucleus of an egg cell (oocyte) with a nucleus from a donor adult somatic cell, which can be any cell in the body except an oocyte or sperm. The embryo is put into the uterus of a surrogate female for reproductive cloning, where it can develop into a living being.

Other Innovations

Scientists can employ gene knockout technology to inactivate, or "knock out," a specific gene in addition to transgenics and cloning. This technology opens the door to the possibility of human organ substitution. Xenotransplantation is the process of transplanting cells, tissues, or organs from one species to another. The pig is currently the most common animal considered a suitable organ donor for humans. Pig and human cells, however, are not immunologically compatible. Pigs, like nearly all mammals, have marks on their cells that allow the human immune system to recognize and reject them as foreign. The pig gene responsible for the protein that serves as a flag for pig cells is knocked out using genetic engineering.

ITS USEFULNESS

Animal biotechnology has numerous applications. Transgenic animals with greater growth rates, increased lean muscle mass, increased disease resistance, or improved utilization of dietary phosphorous have been generated since the early 1980s to reduce the environmental implications of animal waste. Transgenic poultry, swine, goats, and cattle have also been developed to produce huge amounts of human proteins in eggs, milk, blood, or urine, to exploit these products as human medications. Enzymes, clotting factors, albumin, and antibodies are examples of human medicinal proteins. The comparatively inefficient production rate of transgenic animals is a fundamental issue restricting their broad application in agricultural production systems (a success rate of less than 10 percent).

The transfer of the rainbow trout growth hormone gene directly into carp eggs is an example of these specialized applications of animal biotechnology. The transgenic carp that arise produce both carp and rainbow trout growth hormones and grow to be one-third the size of regular carp. The use of transgenic animals is another example to clone a huge number of copies of the gene for a cow growth hormone. The hormone is isolated from the bacterium, processed, and injected into dairy cows, resulting in a 10 to 15% increase in milk production. Bovine somatotropin, or BST, is the growth hormone in question.

The use of animal organs in humans is another prominent application of animal biotechnology. Pigs are now employed to supply human heart valves, but they are also being explored as a possible solution to the serious lack of human organs available for transplant surgeries.

The future of Animal technology

While forecasting the future is necessarily dangerous, some things regarding the future of animal biotechnology can be predicted with certainty. The government agencies in charge of animal biotechnology regulation, primarily the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), are expected to rule on pending regulations and establish procedures for commercializing items developed using the technique. Despite strong resistance from animal welfare and consumer advocacy groups, environmental organizations, some members of Congress, and many consumers, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allowed the sale of cloned animals and their progeny for food in January 2008. It is also believed that technology in the sector will continue to grow, with significant anticipation for advancements in the use of animal organs in human transplant operations.

ISSUES CONNECTED

The enhanced nutritional content of food for human consumption; a more abundant, cheaper, and varied food supply; agricultural land-use savings; a reduction in the number of animals required for food supply; improved animal and human health; development of new, low-cost disease treatments for humans; and increased understanding of the human disease are just a few of the potential benefits of animal biotechnology.

Despite these potential benefits, there are various areas of worry surrounding animal biotechnology. A majority of the American population is currently opposed to animal genetic manipulation.

According to a poll done by the Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, 58 percent of individuals surveyed oppose scientific research on animal genetic engineering. According to a poll done by the Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, 58 percent of individuals surveyed oppose scientific research on animal genetic engineering. In a Gallup poll conducted in May 2004, 64 percent of Americans polled believed that cloning animals were morally unacceptable.

The unknown possible health impacts to people from food products made by transgenic or cloned animals, the potential effects on the environment, and the effects on animal welfare are all concerns regarding the use of animal biotechnology. Additional research will be required before animal biotechnology is widely implemented in animal agricultural production systems to establish whether the benefits of animal biotechnology outweigh the hazards.

SAFETY OF FOOD

"Is it safe to eat?" is the most frequently asked question about the safety of food produced using animal biotechnology for human consumption. However, answering that question isn't easy. Other questions, such as "What compounds expressed as a result of genetic modification are likely to persist in food?" must be addressed first. Despite these concerns, the National Academies of Science (NAS) published Animal Biotechnology: Science-Based Concerns, which concluded that the general level of concern for food safety was low. The report mentioned three specific food concerns: allergies, bioactivity, and nutritional value. as well as the dangers of unwanted expression items

Because the process introduces novel proteins, the possibility of new allergens being expressed in foods made from genetically modified animals is a genuine and valid worry. While food allergens are not a new problem, the challenge is predicting them effectively because they can only be found after a person is exposed and has a reaction.

"Will putting a functional protein like a growth hormone in an animal influence the human who consumes food from that animal?" asks another food safety concern, bioactivity. The FDA only approves these treatments if data and/or studies show that the food from the treated animals is safe to eat and that the drugs are effective. Neither the treated animal nor the ecosystem should be harmed. The drugs must also be efficacious, which means that they must function as intended. The FDA has authorized the labeling for each product, which includes all instructions for safe and effective usage. The FDA also makes a Freedom of Information Summary available to the public on its website for each approved product, which summarizes the information used by the FDA to determine that the drug is safe for the treated animals, and that the animal products (edible tissues such as meat) are safe for humans to eat and that the product is effective.

Finally, in the animal biotechnology process, there is concern regarding the toxicity of unexpected expression products. While the risk is low, there is no information available. According to the NAS report, it must be proved that the nutritional composition of these foods does not change and that no unintended and potentially dangerous expression products occur.

ECOLOGICAL CONCERNS

Another key concern about animal biotechnology is the possibility of harmful environmental consequences. Changes in the ecological balance in terms of feed supplies and predators, the introduction of transgenic animals that affect the health of existing animal populations, and the disturbance of reproduction patterns and their success are all potential downsides. Many more questions must be answered to determine the danger of these environmental effects, such as: What is the likelihood that the changed animal would reach the environment? Will the animal's introduction have an impact on the ecosystem? Will the animal be able to adapt to its surroundings? Will it engage with other animals in the new community and have an impact on their success? It is difficult due to the numerous uncertainties involved to make the assessment.

Consider this: if transgenic fish with genes intended to speed growth were released into the wild, they would be able to compete more successfully for food and mates than wild salmon. As a result, there is a danger that genetically modified organisms will escape and reproduce in the wild. Existing species are believed to be wiped out, disturbing the ecological equilibrium of creatures.

IMPLICATIONS IN LAW

Regulations

Animal biotechnology regulation is now carried out by existing government bodies. To date, no new rules or laws dealing with animal biotechnology and related issues have been implemented. The FDA is the major regulatory organization for animal biotechnology and its products. These goods are covered by the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act's new animal drug requirements (FDCA). The inserted genetic construct is referred to as the "drug" in this context. Because the method for bringing genetically altered animals to market is unknown, the lack of concrete regulatory guidelines has raised many worries.

The FDA decided in 2015 that AquAdvantage Salmon meets the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act's legislative standards for safety and effectiveness. Many people are skeptical about using an agency that was created to control medicines to regulate living animals. The FDCA's lack of an environmental mandate and the agency's strong confidentiality restrictions are another cause for concern. It's still unclear how the agency's regulations for animals will be interpreted, and how numerous agencies will collaborate in the regulatory system.

When animals are genetically modified for biomedical research (like pigs are in organ transplantation experiments), the Department of Agriculture closely regulates their care and use. The work is also governed by the Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals if federal monies are utilized to support the research.

Labelling

Another debate concerning animal biotechnology is whether products made from genetically altered animals should be labeled. Opponents of obligatory labeling argue that it goes against the government's historic focus on regulating products rather than processes. If the FDA has determined that an animal biotechnology product is safe for human consumption and the environment and is not materially different from similar products produced using conventional methods, these individuals argue that it is unfair and without scientific justification to single out that product for labeling solely because of the manufacturing process.

Those in support of obligatory labeling, on the other hand, say that it is a consumer "right-to-know" problem. They argue that customers require complete information about items on the market, including the techniques used to create those products, not for food safety or scientific reasons, but to make ethical decisions.

 

Intellectual Property Protection

A new genetically engineered product takes an average of seven to nine years to create, test, and launch, and costs around $55 million. As a result, practically all animal biotechnology researchers use the patent system to protect their investments and intellectual property. The first transgenic animal, a strain of laboratory mice whose cells were modified to incorporate a cancer-predisposing gene, was patented in 1988.

However, some people believe that patenting life forms is unethical because it turns organisms into a corporate property. Others are concerned about how it may affect small farmers. Those who oppose using the patent system to protect intellectual property in animal biotechnology have recommended using breed registries.

 

CONSIDERATIONS OF ETHICS AND SOCIETY

Animal biotechnology has important ethical and social implications. This is especially relevant because researchers and developers are concerned that the public's approval of items developed from cloned or genetically altered animals will play a role in their future market success. There are both skeptics and outright opponents of animal biotechnology. The methods of transgenics and cloning, according to strict opponents, are essentially immoral. It's been compared to "playing God." Furthermore, they frequently oppose animal biotechnology as being unnatural. They claim that its processes contradict nature and, in some situations, cross natural species boundaries.

Others doubt the necessity of genetically modifying animals. Some speculate that it is done to boost corporate profits and agricultural production. They feel that there should be a compelling need for animal genetic manipulation and that humans should not exploit animals solely for our desires and purposes. Others say it is wrong to restrict technology that has the potential to benefit humanity. The FDA can only mandate further labeling of foods derived from Genetically Engineered sources if there is a substantive difference – such as a different nutritional profile – between the GE product and its non-GE counterpart as of May 27, 2016, under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

While the topic of ethics raises more problems than it answers, it is evident that animal biotechnology sparks a lot of controversy and discussion among scientists, researchers, and the general public in the United States. Two major points of contention are the welfare of the animals involved and the religious implications of animal biotechnology.

 

ANIMAL PROTECTION

The animals themselves are perhaps the source of the most disagreement and controversy around animal biotechnology. While it has been observed that animals may gain from the use of animal biotechnology — for example, through enhanced health — the majority of the discussion has focused on the known and unknown possible detrimental effects on animal welfare.

Calves and lambs born via in vitro fertilization or cloning, for example, have larger birth weights and longer gestation periods, resulting in difficult births that frequently necessitate cesarean sections. Furthermore, several of the current biotechnology approaches are exceedingly inefficient at creating viable fetuses. Many transgenic animals that survive do not correctly express the inserted gene, resulting in morphological, physiological, or behavioral problems.

There's also the possibility that proteins engineered to make a medicinal product in the animal's milk could end up in other sections of the animal's body, causing problems.

Animal "telos" is an Aristotelian notion that refers to an animal's basic nature. There is debate about whether changing an animal's telos via transgenesis is ethical. Is it ethical, for example, to make genetically modified hens that can live in small cages? Those who oppose the idea argue that it is proof that we have gone too far in altering that animal.

Those who support modifying an animal's telos claim that it will benefit the animal by allowing it to adapt to living situations that it is not "naturally" suited to.

There's also the possibility that proteins engineered to make a medicinal product in the animal's milk could end up in other sections of the animal's body, causing problems.

Animal "telos" is an Aristotelian notion that refers to an animal's basic nature. There is debate about whether changing an animal's telos via transgenesis is ethical. Is it ethical, for example, to make genetically modified hens that can live in small cages? Those who oppose the idea argue that it is proof that we have gone too far in altering that animal.

Those who support modifying an animal's telos claim that it will benefit the animal by allowing it to adapt to living situations that it is not "naturally" suited to. Some contemporary theologians even consider biotechnology as a challenging, good potential for us to "co-create" with God.

Religious issues

Some religious groups may have issues with transgenic animals. Certain meals are restricted to Muslims, Sikhs, and Hindus, for example. Such religious constraints pose fundamental problems regarding animal identity and genetic makeup. Does a melon become "fishy" in any meaningful sense if a small quantity of genetic material from a fish is injected into it (to allow it to grow at lower temperatures), for example? Some claim that because all species share common genetic material, the melon does not hold any information about the fish. Others, on the other hand, believe that the transferred genes are what distinguishes the animal. As a result, eating the melon would be prohibited as well.

Zoological subdisciplines

ZOOLOGICAL SUBDISCIPLINES

Subdisciplines that focus on different aspects of animal life:

Entomology 

Insects 

Herpetology

Amphibians and reptiles

Ichthyology

Fish 

Invertebrates of zoology

Animals without backbones

Malacology

Mollusks

Mammalogy

Mammals

Ornithology

Birds

Primatology

Primates

 

OTHER SUBDISCIPLINES

Ecology

Interactions between animals and their environment

Embryology

Development of animals before birth

Ethology

Animal behavior

Paleontology

Fossils

Sociobiology

Social organisms such as bees, ants, schooling fish, flocking birds, and humans have evolved behavior, ecology, and evolution.

 

The types of jobs that zoologists do are likewise fairly varied. Many students choose zoology as an undergraduate degree because they want to work in one of the health care professions (veterinary medicine, medicine, dentistry) or in the environmental sciences. Agricultural, biotechnological/pharmaceutical, and environmental/ecological jobs are all accessible. There are positions available both in the field and in the lab. Positions in government, environmental agencies, education (including universities and colleges), and industry are all possibilities (including consulting firms and biomedical companies). Depending on how biological sciences are organized at a given college or university, a student interested in majoring in biology may be able to do so.

Zoology