Bioscience glossary (A)

 BIOSCIENCE GLOSSARY

Abnormal

Any deviation from the norm or "correct." It doesn't have to indicate destructive or unfavorable; it could instead mean abnormal, unusual, or strange. An faulty gene can cause a specific disorder when used in reference to genes.

Abortion

Termination of a pregnancy before it is due to be born.

Absorption

The ability of a dietary supplement to be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Vaccine with acellular components

A vaccine that contains partial cellular material rather than whole cells.

Immunity that is active

The immune system's generation of antibodies against a certain illness. Active immunity can be obtained in one of two ways: by contracting the disease or via vaccination. Active immunity is usually lifelong, meaning that a person is immune to the disease for the rest of his or her life.

Acute

A powerful, short-term health effect.

Adaptation

A genetically programmed trait that improves an organism's ability to adapt to its surroundings.

Adequate calorie intake

A dosage guideline that can be seen on a product label in the absence of recommended daily dietary allowance information is branded as daily values.

Adult stem cells are cells that have developed into adults.

An undifferentiated cell found in a developed tissue can renew itself and differentiate to produce all of the specialized cell types of the tissue from which it originated, subject to certain limits. Because humans are born with so-called adult stem cells in our tissue, the nomenclature is ambiguous; many scientists prefer to refer to them as somatic stem cells.

Biotechnology in agriculture

Traditional breeding techniques that alter living organisms or sections of organisms to manufacture or modify products, better plants or animals, or develop microbes for specific agricultural uses are among the instruments available. The tools of genetic engineering are used in modern biotechnology.

AIDS is a disease that affects millions of (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

A medical illness in which the immune system fails to defend the body against disease and function effectively. As a result, the body is unable to fight infections (such as pneumonia). AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is transmitted by direct contact with an infected person's blood and bodily fluids. Although there is no cure for AIDS, research to produce a vaccine is ongoing.

Species of aliens

As a result of purposeful or unintentional dispersal by human actions, a species now lives in an area outside its previously recognized natural range.

Allele

At a certain gene position on a chromosome, one of two or more alternative versions of a gene exists. Inherited traits such as hair color and blood type are affected by different alleles. One form of the allele (the dominant one) may be expressed more than another form in an individual (the recessive one).

Allergen

A chemical that can produce an allergy or allergic reaction in the body, usually a protein.

Allergy

After being exposed to a specific material, usually a protein, the immune system reacts.

Alzheimer's disease is a type of dementia.

A gradual, degenerative illness of the brain that causes memory, cognitive, and behavior problems. Although not all cases of Alzheimer's disease are inherited, genes for family versions of the disease have been discovered.

A kind of amino acid

A protein's fundamental building block. A total of 20 amino acids are found in the human body. A protein, also known as a polypeptide chain, is made up of long chains of amino acids. Phenylalanine, threonine, and alanine are some examples.

Amniocentesis

A method of collecting amniotic fluid for the purpose of prenatal diagnostics. 2. A uterine sample of amniotic fluid is genetically analyzed.

Anthrax

The spore-forming bacteria Bacillus anthracis causes a noncontagious, possibly deadly sickness when inhaled, eaten, or absorbed through incisions in the skin.

Antigen

A chemical that helps the body produce antibodies. Pollen grains, dust, bacteria or viruses, and most proteins are examples.

Antioxidant

Free radicals are molecules that speed up the aging process and lead to sickness. A chemical that prevents or inhibits their activity. Free radicals can be present in rancid fats and oils, as well as in the environment.

Antitoxins

Antibodies that can neutralize a toxic or hazardous material. The toxins produced by the invading bacteria induce the symptoms of some diseases such as botulism, tetanus, and diphtheria.

Antiviral

Any drug that has the ability to kill or weaken a virus. The phrase directly translates to "against virus."

Mutation that is autosomal dominant

A dominant mutation in a gene that is passed down through the generations on an autosome.

Gene that is inherited from both parents

An autosomal gene is one that is found on a single chromosome.

Mutation that is autosomal recessive

A recessive mutation in an autosome-borne gene.

Autosomal characteristics

Other than the sex chromosomes, traits carried on the chromosomes (X and Y).

Autosome

Any non-sex chromosome (not an X or Y chromosome).

A vaccine that has been weakened

A live virus is attenuated using chemical or physical procedures in order to elicit an immune response without generating the disease's severe consequences. Measles, mumps, rubella, polio, yellow fever, and varicella are among the attenuated vaccinations currently available in the United States. A live vaccine is also known as a living vaccine.

Animal behaviorist

 

Animal behaviorist

DEFINITION:

The scientific study of animal behavior is known as animal behaviorism and it entails looking into everything that animals do. single-cell creatures invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and animals are involved in the animal investigation. Animal behaviorists study how animals interact with their surroundings as well as other organisms. Animals’ inability to find and defend resources, avoid predators, choose partners, breed, and care for their young are among the issue studied.

EXPLANATION:

Animals behaviors researchers are interested in learning about the causes, functions, development, and evolution of animal behavior. Animals behaviorists will investigate the function of behavior as well as behavior’s impact on animals and its adaptive significance in assisting the animal’s survival or reproduction in a given environment. The animal behaviorist will also look at the development of behavior to see how it evolved throughout an animal’s life and how it is influenced by both genes and experience.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES

Government and private sector

Many animals behaviorist work in government laboratories or private businesses or industries and many of them entail health-related research. Animal behaviorists may be hired by drug firms or government laboratories to perform a study on the behavioral effect of new pharmaceuticals on animals, to investigate the link between animal behavior and disease, or to assess the well-being of animals in their care. Animal behaviorists are occasionally hired by state and federal government entities in charge of natural resource management initiatives. Behaviorists are increasingly being hired by private environmental consulting organizations to investigate the effects of habitat change on animal feeding patterns, spatial dispersion, and reproductive processes.

A Ph.D. is required for many of these jobs, and training is also required. Training in relevant subjects such as physiology, biochemistry, or pharmacology is very beneficial for health-related occupations.

 College Research and Teaching

The majority of animal behaviorists work at colleges and universities, where they teach and/or do independent research. Many behaviorists work in biology, zoology, or psychology departments at universities. Departments of anthropology, sociology, neuroscience, animal science, wildlife biology, entomology, and ecology, as well as medical and veterinary colleges, employ other behaviorists.

A Ph.D. is normally required for careers in college teaching and research, while some junior colleges simply require a master's degree. The majority of animal behavior employment is found in larger academic departments, and animal behaviorists frequently teach in fields including physiology, ecology, and evolution. Students who earn a Ph.D. in a program that focuses on behavioral or biological sciences have an advantage in the job market; even though animal behavior is a burgeoning field, competition for teaching and research positions remains fierce.

 

Zoos & Aquariums, Environmental Organizations, and Museums

Animal behaviorists are occasionally hired as curators or researchers by zoos, aquariums, and museums. Curators are in charge of acquiring, maintaining, and displaying animal collections, whereas researchers are in charge of scientific studies on such creatures.

Behavioral research in zoos and aquariums is usually targeted at enhancing animal health and reproduction. Behaviorists frequently work closely with field biologists that specialize in endocrinology, nutrition, genetics, and veterinary medicine in this capacity. Museum behavioral research can span a wide range of themes, although it mainly focuses on aspects of ecology and natural history.

Animal behaviorists are employed by some conservation organizations, particularly those that fund long-term field research or are involved in reintroduction programs (the release of captive animals into an area that was once part of a species' historical range but has since been removed or extinct), nature preserve design, or sustainable wildlife use. As these organizations grow in size and popularity, the number of job openings for animal behaviorists in the area should rise. Curators, researchers, and conservationists typically have a Ph.D. or DVM in biology, as well as thorough training in at least one other field, such as animal husbandry (the agricultural activity of breeding and raising cattle), ecology, entomology, ornithology, mammalogy, or primatology.

Researchers who specialize in animal behavior education are also employed by zoos, aquariums, and museums. Educators use tours, lectures, and instructional displays to share their understanding of animal behavior with the general public. A B.S., M.S., or Ph.D. in biological or behavioral sciences is required of educators. It is usually recommended if you have some specific training or experience in secondary or adult education.

 Other Research Prospects

Universities, zoos, museums, government agencies, and private facilities frequently engage paid research assistants to assist with ongoing animal behavior studies. These behaviorists operate under the guidance of professors and staff researchers to assist in the design, execution, and analysis of animal behavior studies. Depending on the nature of the study endeavor, research assistants may work in laboratories or in the field. Full-time research assistants usually have a bachelor's or master's degree, while part-time research assistants usually have a bachelor's or master's degree.

EDUCATION/TRAINING

The majority of scientists that engage directly with animals work in one of four fields: ethology (the scientific study of animal behavior), comparative psychology, behavioral ecology, or anthropology. The goals, interests, and methodologies of these fields are quite similar. Behavioral ecologists have concentrated on how animal behavioral patterns connect to social and environmental contexts, whereas psychologists and ethologists have mostly been interested in the control and functions of animal behavior. Ethologists and behavioral ecologists are often educated in biology, zoology, ecology and evolution, entomology, wildlife, and other animal sciences departments. The majority of comparative psychologists receive their education in psychology departments.

Some animal behavior careers just demand a B.A. or B.S. degree. However, most animal behavior occupations necessitate considerable training

SALARY

Animal behaviorists made an average salary of $71,830 in May 2015, according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics. The lowest-paid ten percent of animal behaviorists earned $37,830 or less per year, while the highest-paid ten percent earned more than $100,000 per year.

 

Molecular biology

 

Molecular biology

DEFINITION:

The study of the structure, function and makeup of the molecular building elements of life is known as molecular biology.

EXPLANATION:

It focuses on the interactions between a cell's numerous processes, such as the interplay between DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis, and how these relationships are controlled. Molecular biology, the most recent of the biosciences, is closely linked to biochemistry, genetics, and cell biology.

Molecular biology dates back to the 1930s when scientists sought to understand life's phenomena by examining the macromolecules that make it possible. Beginning in 1940, the breakthroughs in molecular biology occurred over a 25-y25 years study of the structure, function, and makeup of the molecular building elements of life known as molecular biology. It focuses on the interactions between a cell's numerous processes, such as the interplay between DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis, and how these relationships are controlled. Molecular biology, the most recent of the biosciences, is closely linked to biochemistry, genetics, and cell biology. Molecular biology dates back to the 1930s when scientists sought to understand life's phenomena by examining the macromolecules that make it possible. Beginning in 1940, the breakthroughs in molecular biology occurred over 25-ye25 years standing how molecules conduct metabolism, or how they process the energy required to sustain life, was another significant breakthrough. Molecular biologists may now investigate higher plants and animals using genetic engineering techniques, which opens up the possibility of modifying plant and animal genes to increase agricultural productivity. These techniques also paved the path for gene therapy to take off.

With the start of the now-completed Human Genome Project in 1990, an ambitious international endeavor in molecular biology began (HGP). Its mission was to find all 20,000 to 25,000 human genes and make them available for further scientific research.

Another goal of the study was to decipher the entire sequence of the three billion DNA components (bases in the human genome). Parallel studies on selected model species such as the bacterium E. coli and the mouse were conducted as part of the HGP to aid in the development of technology and the interpretation of human gene function. The HGP was co-sponsored by the Department of Energy Human Genome Program and the National Human Genome Research Institute of the National Institutes of Health.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY SUBDISCIPLINES

Genomics Comparative

This is the study of human genetics through comparisons with model organisms including mice, fruit flies, and E. coli bacteria.

DNA Forensics is a branch of forensic science that deals with the study

This is when DNA is used to identify someone. The use of DNA in child support disputes, establishing paternity, establishing the presence of a suspect at a crime scene, and identifying accident victims are just a few instances.

Functional Genomics is a branch of genomics that studies how

This is the study of genes, the proteins that they produce, and the role that proteins play in the biochemical processes of the body.

Gene Therapy is a type of gene therapy that involves

This is a process for replacing, modifying, or augmenting nonfunctioning or misfunctioning genes with healthy genes in an experimental setting.

Genomics

The study of genes and their functions is referred to as genetics.

Genetics at the molecular level

The study of macromolecules that play a role in biological heredity.

Pharmacogenomics

This is the study of how a person's genetic composition interacts with their pharmacological reaction.

Proteomics

This is the study of a genome's complete set of proteins.

Structural Genomics is a branch of genomics that focuses on the structure

This is a project that aims to discover the three-dimensional structures of a large number of proteins using both experimental and computer simulation techniques.

Toxicogenomic

This is the study of how genomes react to stressors or toxicants in the environment.

MICROBIOLOGY

 

MICROBIOLOGY

DEFINITION:

Microbiology is the study of unicellular or cell-cluster organisms and infectious agents that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Eukaryotes (organisms with a nucleus), such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes (organisms without a nucleus), such as bacteria, are included in this category.

EXPLANATION:

The study of microbes has provided fundamental insight into how a cell functions. Microbiology, on the other hand, is an applied science that aids agriculture, health and medicine, environmental preservation, and the biotechnology business. Microbiologists investigate bacteria at three levels: community level (ecology and epidemiology), cell level (cell biology and physiology), and protein and gene level (molecular biology).

Microorganisms play a critical role in our daily lives. Some are responsible for a large number of diseases that harm not only humans but also plants and animals, while others are critical for the preservation and modification of our ecosystem. Others are used in the manufacturing of food, beverages, and antibiotics, and their distinctive qualities have been harnessed. Scientists have also discovered ways to use microorganisms in the field of molecular biology, which has a huge impact on both the industrial and medical sectors. Immunology, the study of the body's ability to mount defenses against infectious germs, is included in microbiology.

Because microbiology is defined as the study of organisms that are not visible to the human eye, we can call Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a late-17th-century Dutch scientist, the discipline's founder. Leeuwenhoek was the first to characterize small cells and germs, and he developed new procedures for grinding and polishing microscope lenses that allowed for curvatures of up to 270 diameters, the best available magnification at the time. While Van Leeuwenhoek is credited with being the first microbiologist, the earliest documented microbiological observation – mold fruiting structures — was made by English physicist Robert Hooke in 1665.

Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, who are considered the founders of medical microbiology, are two more prominent figures in science history who produced fundamental discoveries about microbes. Pasteur is most known for a series of experiments that disproved the commonly believed hypothesis of spontaneous generation at the time, firmly establishing microbiology's status as a biological discipline. Pasteur also developed food preservation technologies (pasteurization) and vaccinations for diseases like anthrax, chicken cholera, and rabies. Koch is most recognized for his contributions to the germ theory of illness, which demonstrated that certain diseases are caused by certain pathogenic microbes. Koch's postulates are a set of criteria that he developed.

Koch was one of the first scientists to concentrate on the separation of bacteria in pure culture, which led to the discovery of several new bacteria, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the tuberculosis causative agent.

Finally, some of the most significant discoveries affecting public health occurred in the twentieth century, including Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin, which sparked a race to discover another natural, and eventually synthetic, antibiotics; the development of critical vaccines, such as those for polio and yellow fever; and the birth of molecular biology, which began in the 1940s with the study of bacteria.

MICROBIOLOGY SUBDISCIPLINES

Bacteriology

Bacterial science is the study of bacteria.

Microbiology of the Environment

The function and diversity of microorganisms in their natural settings are studied in this field.

Microbiology in Evolution

Microbiology is the study of the evolution of microorganisms.

Microbiology of Food

Microorganisms that cause food spoilage, as well as those involved in the production of foods like cheese and beer, are studied in this field.

Microbiology in Industry

The employment of microorganisms in industrial processes such as industrial fermentation and wastewater treatment is referred to as this. This field is strongly associated with the biotechnology business.

Microbiology in Medicine (or Clinical Microbiology)

The role of bacteria in human sickness is investigated in this field. It is connected to the study of disease pathology and immunology and encompasses the study of microbial pathogenesis and epidemiology.

Genetics of Microorganisms

This is the research into how genes in microorganisms are structured and controlled in connection to their biological functions. The field of molecular biology is strongly tied to this subdiscipline.

Physiology of Microbes

This is the study of how the biochemistry of a microbial cell works. The study of microbial growth, microbial metabolism, and microbial cell structure are all included.

Mycology

The study of fungi is known as mycology.

Microbiology in Veterinary Medicine

In veterinary medicine, this is the study of the role of microorganisms.

Virology

The study of viruses is known as virology.

IMMUNOLOGY

 

IMMUNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Our bodies are continually under attack by millions of unseen foes, including viruses, bacteria, fungus, parasites, and other disease-causing pathogens that can penetrate our bodies and cause disease. Fortunately, most of us have a massive army on constant alert with an effective armament ready to combat these intruders. The immune system is that army.

DEFINITION:

Immunology is the study of the immune system, which is made up of a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that communicate via a sophisticated and sensitive system.

EXPLANATION:

 A variety of white blood cells (leukocytes) and antibodies are always on the lookout for infections, ready to leap into action and send out chemical instructions through the bloodstream. Immunologists can improve the immune system's performance by better knowing what these cells and molecules do and how they communicate with one another (for example, by developing new vaccines). They can also figure out how to inhibit the immune system from reacting to an inappropriate target, such as in allergies (a hyper reaction to pollen or other allergens) or autoimmune illnesses (when the immune system reacts against your own body).

Our bodies use three primary ways to defend ourselves from infection:

By erecting nonspecific barriers to prevent germs and viruses from taking hold. Skin, mucus discharges in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems, saliva, tears, and stomach acid are all examples of these.

Beneficial bacteria that live in the intestines and help digest specific types of food (known as the normal flora) compete with pathogenic bacteria for food and space, reducing the likelihood of disease-causing pathogens multiplying and causing sickness.

By relying on our innate immune system to detect invaders that get past the first line of defense. Innate immunity cells and other systems sense and respond to infections in a nonspecific manner, and they do not provide long-term or protective immunity. They are phagocytic ("eating") cells that ingest and consume pathogens and particles. Phosphatic leukocytes include macrophages, polymorphonuclear cells, dendritic cells, and mast cells. The natural killer cell is a nonphagocytic member of the innate immune system (the part of the immune system with specialized cells that identify and typically eradicate a bodily invader before it can proliferate) (NK). The NK does not directly assault a disease; instead, it destroys contaminated cells. Tumor cells are also attacked by NK cells.

If pathogens get past the barriers and phagocytes and start multiplying, a unique adaptive immune response is activated. Adaptive immunity is based on our lymphocytes' unique ability to discriminate between the body's cells (self) and undesirable invaders (no-self) based on distinct self-markers on our cells. The natural killer cell is a nonphagocytic member of the innate immune system (the part of the immune system with specialized cells that identify and typically eradicate a bodily invader before it can proliferate) (NK). The NK does not directly assault a disease; instead, it destroys contaminated cells. Tumor cells are also attacked by NK cells.

If pathogens get past the barriers and phagocytes and start multiplying, a unique adaptive immune response is activated. Because of different self-markers on our cells, our lymphocytes have a remarkable ability to distinguish between the body's cells (self) and undesirable invaders (no-self), which is the foundation of adaptive immunity. When our immune self-defenses across organisms or cells with "foreign" marks, they initiate an attack right away. The adaptive immune response allows the immune system to detect a pathogen and mount a stronger and faster attack each time the disease is encountered.

An antigen is something that can cause an immunological reaction. A germ, such as a virus, or even a portion of a microbe, can be an antigen. Antigens are no self-indicators carried by tissues or cells from another person (excluding identical twins). This helps to understand why tissue transplants are sometimes rejected. B cells and T cells are the two main types of lymphocytes that make up our immune system. B cells primarily function by secreting antibodies into the body's fluids. Antibodies swoop down on antigens in the bloodstream. They are unable to penetrate cells, though. T cells and other immune cells are in charge of fighting target cells, whether they've been infected by viruses or have been warped by cancer.

T cells, unlike B cells, do not identify antigens that are floating in the air. Rather, they have specific antibody-like receptors on their surfaces that detect antigen fragments on the surfaces of infected or malignant cells. T cells aid immune defenses in two ways: some guide and regulate immunological responses, while others help to suppress them. The cells, or helper T cells, communicate with other cells to coordinate immune responses. Some activate surrounding T cells, while others summon in phagocytes and stimulate nearby B cells to generate antibodies.

Killer T cells, also known as CTLs or cytotoxic T lymphocytes, have a different purpose. By connecting to other cells and delivering a fatal blast of chemicals that they safely carry within small membrane "bags" called granules, these cells directly assault other cells containing particular foreign or aberrant molecules on their surfaces. CTLs are very effective against viruses that are developing within infected cells. Small bits of these viruses peeking out from the Some of the B cells and T cells that participated in the attack on a foreign invader go on to become memory cells with a long lifespan. They can reproduce to mount a faster and stronger immune response in a second encounter with the invader. The scientific basis for immunization is this phenomenon.

The immune system's diverse cells create and secrete a variety of chemicals that alert other cells to the presence of an invader and aid in the activation of an immune response. Histamine (which dilates blood vessels, produces inflammation, and draws neutrophils and macrophages), interferons (which are released when viruses and tumor cells are encountered), and interleukins (which are released when viruses and tumor cells are encountered) are among them (which are vital to the functions of the immune system). The cell membrane is recognized by CTLs, which start an attack to kill the cell.

IMMUNOLOGICAL SUBDISCIPLINES

 Immunogenetics

This includes research on the genetics (inheritance) of immunological responses, such as the Rh and ABO blood groups, or the HLA system, which is vital in kidney and other transplants. The field also looks into the genetics of an individual's antigen-response capabilities.

Immunology in Clinical Practice

From a medical standpoint, this is the study of diseases produced by the immune system and disorders of the immune system. The majority of these illnesses fall into one of three categories: immunodeficiency, in which parts of the immune system fail to respond adequately; autoimmunity, in which the immune system attacks its cells; and hypersensitivity, in which the immune system reacts inappropriately to harmless compounds (allergies and asthma) or responds inappropriately to harmful compounds (allergies and asthma).

AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a classic example of an immune-system disorder. It is defined by the absence of T helper cells and macrophages, both of which are killed by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).

Clinical immunologists also research techniques to reduce organ transplant rejection and increase the immune system's ability to combat cancer.

Immunology at the molecular level

This mostly entails investigating the chemicals released by cells that regulate immune cell migration and activity. Chemicals that attract cells to an infection location and start the inflammatory process are examples of such compounds.

Immunology of the Cells

T cells are the subject of this research.

Immunology of the Humoral

The focus of this research is on B cells and the antibodies they make.

Genetics

 

Genetics

DEFINITION:

Genetics is the study of how genes work and how they behave. Genes are molecular instructions made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are found inside the cells of all organisms, from bacteria to humans. Genes, which are found in one or more chromosomes, determine an organism's characteristics, or traits. The genome is the collection of all of an organism's genes. To put it another way, the genome is divided into chromosomes, which contain genes, which are formed from DNA.

EXPLANATION:

Geneticists want to know how cells use and govern the information encoded in genes, as well as how it is passed down from generation to generation. They also look into how minor genetic differences might affect an organism's development or cause disease. Classical genetics refers to genetic approaches and procedures that predate the development of molecular genetics, which investigates the structure and function of genes at the molecular level. Classical genetics is primarily concerned with the way by which genetic features are transmitted in plants and animals, and it remains the foundation for all other issues in genetics. These traits are classed as dominant (always expressed), recessive (subordinate to a dominant trait), intermediate (partially expressed), or polygenic (either expressed or not expressed) (due to multiple genes). Furthermore, the features are either sex-linked (due to the action of a gene on one of the sex chromosomes) or autosomal (due to the action of a gene on one of the sex chromosomes) (result from the action of a gene on a chromosome other than a sex chromosome). Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, pioneered classical genetics by tracing the inheritance patterns of specific features in pea plants and demonstrating that they could be quantitatively expressed ("Mendel's laws"). Experiments on Plant Hybridization, Mendel's 1865 article, went mostly overlooked until the early twentieth century. The inheritance patterns discovered by Mendel are currently used in the study of genetic illnesses.

Molecular genetics uses genetics and molecular biology tools to study the development, structure, and function of macromolecules that are necessary to live (such as nucleic acids and proteins), as well as their role in cell replication and genetic information transfer. The revelation of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 considerably expanded the research options available to geneticists. In the 1970s, scientists were able to start sequencing genes (determining the exact order of the four subunits of DNA — adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine); cloning genes (producing a replica of a gene from one organism), and moving genes from one organism to another to create genetically modified organisms thanks to the discovery of restriction enzymes (which catalyze the cleavage of DNA at specific sites to produce discrete fragments) (GMOs). Recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering refers to the combination of the two methods.

GENETICS SUBDISCIPLINES

Genetics of Populations, Quantitative Genetics, and Ecological Genetics

Population genetics, quantitative genetics, and ecological genetics are all subfields of classical genetics (supplemented with modern molecular genetics). Though they all investigate populations of species, their focus differs slightly. Natural selection, mutations, and migration all influence the distribution of genes, and population genetics analyses how their frequencies change as a result of these influences. Quantitative genetics is the study of continuous traits (such as height or weight) that do not exhibit straightforward Mendelian inheritance because they are the product of the interplay of many different genres. It is based on population genetics. Ecological genetics builds on the fundamental ideas of population genetics, but it is more specifically focused on ecological challenges, such as the link between species and their surrounding environments.

Medical Genetics

The application of genetics to medicine is known as medical genetics. Clinical genetics (the diagnosis and treatment of genetic illnesses), cytogenetics (the study of chromosomes under a microscope), molecular genetics, and genetic counseling are all examples of medical genetics (education and guidance offered by professional advisors to help people make informed decisions based on personal genetic information).

Genetics of Behavior

Behavioral genetics is the study of how heredity influences animal behavior. Behavioral genetics is the study of the genetic foundation of personality as well as the causes and effects of human problems like mental illness, substance misuse, violence, and social attitudes in humans.

Genomics

Genomics is the study of large-scale genetic patterns across a species' genome. The data obtained from genome sequence data also indicates what genes perform, how they're controlled, and how they interact. The Human Genome Project, which is now complete, has developed a genetic blueprint for creating a human person. Researchers will be able to use this crucial knowledge to find the genetic contributions to diseases, build highly effective diagnostic tools and therapies, and better understand people's health requirements based on their genetic makeup.

FORENSIC SCIENCE

FORENSIC SCIENCE

DEFINITION:

Forensic science is the study of a wide range of sciences to answer problems in the legal system. In a variety of sectors, forensic science employs cutting-edge technology to unearth scientific evidence.

EXPLANATION:

The term "forensic" is derived from the Latin word "forensics," which means "used in or suited for courts of justice or public discussion or debate." Forensic science is any science that is employed for legal purposes in the public, in a court or in the theine justice system; thus, any science that is used for legal purposes is forensic science.

Archimedes' Eureka legend (287–212 B.C.E.) can be considered an early account of the application of forensic science. Archimedes used water displacement principles to argue that a crown was not constructed of gold (as had been believed) based on its density and buoyancy. During the seventh century, fingerprints were used as a technique of establishing identity. Medical evidence was first used to determine the mode of death in China in the 11th century, and it flourished in 16th-century Europe. The Office of the Coroner, which combines a medical and judicial approach to dealing with crimes and is still utilized in the United States today, was founded in England in the 12th century by King Richard I. The coroner system was established by the American colonists, and it is still in use today. There is no requirement that a coroner is a licensed physician under federal law.

The applications of modern forensic science are numerous. In civil situations such as forgeries, fraud, or carelessness, it is used. It can assist law enforcement personnel in determining whether any rules or regulations governing the marketing of foods and beverages, the manufacture of medications, or the use of pesticides on crops have been broken. It can also tell if automotive emissions are below acceptable limits and if drinking water fulfills legal purity standards. Forensic science is used to track whether countries are complying with international accords like the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Chemical Weapons Convention, as well as to determine whether they are building secret nuclear weapons programs. In most crimes involving a victim, such as assault, robbery, kidnapping, rape, or murder, forensic science is applied.

In a criminal inquiry involving victims, the medical examiner is a key character. The medical examiner's job is to go to the crime scene, perform an autopsy (body examination) in cases of death, examine the medical evidence and laboratory reports, research the victim's medical history, and compile all of this information into a report for the district attorney, who is the public prosecuting officer for a specific district. Medical examiners are typically forensic pathologists who specialize in the study of structural and functional changes in the body as a result of injury. Forensic scientists, who are experts in these subjects, may be called upon by the medical examiner to assist in the investigation of a crime. In criminal cases, forensic scientists are frequently involved in the search for an investigation of physical traces that may be beneficial in establishing or disproving a relationship between a suspect and the crime scene or victim. Blood, other bodily fluids, hair, textile fibers from clothing, paint, glass, other building materials, footwear, tool, tire marks, and incendiary substances used to ignite fires are all examples of such traces. Occasionally, the scientist will come to the scene to offer advice on the likely sequence of events and to assist in the early evidence search. Toxicologists are forensic scientists who look for drugs, poisons, alcohol, and other chemicals in a person's bodily fluids, tissue, and organs. Others specialize in weaponry, explosives, or documents of dubious validity.

Dusting the crime scene for fingerprints is one of the earliest forensic science practices. Fingerprinting is a reliable method of identification because no two fingerprints are alike. Law enforcement officials can now digitally record fingerprints and electronically transmit and receive fingerprint information for faster identification thanks to advances in computer technology. DNA fingerprinting is a powerful tool for analyzing blood, hair, skin, and sperm evidence at a crime scene. A laboratory can quickly clone, or replicate, the DNA from a little sample of any of these chemicals using an advanced technology procedure known as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This procedure generates enough DNA to compare to a criminal suspect's DNA sample.

Today, forensic science is a high-tech field that analyses and researches evidence utilizing electron microscopes, lasers, ultraviolet and infrared light, advanced analytical chemical procedures, and computerized databanks. Actual blood tests, such as gas chromatography, can be used to determine blood alcohol levels, for example. This approach involves vaporizing a blood sample at a high temperature and passing the gas through a column that separates the various chemical components contained in the blood. Gas chromatography may identify a variety of substances, including barbiturates, cocaine, amphetamines, and heroin, in addition to alcohol.

When a body is located in a lake, stream, river, or ocean with water in the lungs, the medical examiner must determine whether the drowning occurred in the area where the body was discovered or elsewhere. The presence or absence of diatoms, single-celled algae prevalent in all-natural bodies of water, is examined using a conventional microscope that can magnify things to 1,500 times their true size. Because diatoms are removed from domestic water during treatment, the absence of diatoms suggests that the drowning occurred in a sink or bathtub, not where the body was discovered.

The minute gunpowder particles present on the hand of a person who has recently shot a gun are detected using a scanning electron microscope that magnifies items 100,000 times. These particles can also be studied chemically to determine if they came from a certain type of bullet. The presence of a suspect at a crime scene can often be determined through forensic testing of substances found at the scene. Bite marks left by humans can also be used as evidence. Bite marks may be discovered on a homicide victim's body or in food or other items found at the crime scene, such as chewing gum. Liquid plastic can be used to cover the impressions left by these bites by a forensic scientist. When the cast is hardened, it becomes an exceptionally accurate reproduction of the assailant's teeth, which may be compared to a cast made from the suspect's teeth.

FORENSIC SCIENCE SUBDISCIPLINES

Criminalistics

In criminal investigations, this involves the application of several sciences to address questions about biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, shoeprints, and tire tracks), controlled substances, and guns.

Accounting for Legal Purposes

This is the research and analysis of financial data.

Forensic Anthropology

Forensic Anthropology is a branch of forensic science that deals with the study

The use of physical anthropology in a judicial situation, usually for the retrieval and identification of skeletonized human remains, is known as forensic anthropology. Economic Forensics

This includes present-day estimations of lost earnings and benefits, the lost value of a firm, lost business profits, lost value of home service, replacement labor costs, and future medical care expenditures, among other things.

Engineering Forensics

This is the study of what causes technologies, vehicles, and structures to fail.

Forensic Entomology

Forensic Entomology is a branch of forensic entomology that studies insects

This is the study of insects in, on, and around human remains to determine the time and place of death. It's also possible to tell if a body was transferred after it died.

Forensic Odontology

Forensic Odontology is a branch of dentistry that focuses on the study of teeth

This is the study of teeth's individuality.