Bioscience glossary(C)

 Bioscience glossary

 

Caffeic acid is a caffeic acid derivative.

As a yellow crystalline material, an acid is derived from coffee tannin.

Calorie

Food and beverage energy is measured in kilocalories.

Gene candidate

A gene whose function or location implies it may be involved in the development of a disease or a trait in a group of people.

Carbohydrate

Cellulosic, starches, and sugars are organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

black carbon

Elemental carbon in powdered form.

Carcinogen

A cancer-causing physical or chemical agent. It could be a mutagen or not.

Carotenoids

One of the most common types of pigments found in nature. These chemicals are mostly responsible for the color of red, yellow, and orange fruits and vegetables, as well as many dark foods.

Carrier

A person who carries a recessive disease-causing gene mutation on one chromosome of a pair and a normal allele at the same locus on the other chromosome. It could also apply to someone who has a balanced chromosomal rearrangement. A carrier for cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia is an example.

chromosomal rearrangement carrier

This term refers to a person who has a chromosomal rearrangement in which the normal genetic material is present (or "balanced") but not in the regular 46 chromosome sequence.

a person who carries a mutant gene

Each gene is duplicated in every cell. One gene copy may be mutated (abnormal), while the other is "normal." The defective gene is said to be recessive to the other, correct copy of the gene if it is not expressed in the cells (leading in a certain trait or condition). A carrier for a mutation that causes a certain ailment is someone who has one proper gene copy and one flawed (recessive) gene copy. Carriers of a recessive gene mutation are normally unaffected, but they run the risk of transmitting the mutated gene on to their children.

Screening of the carrier

Individuals are tested to see if they are carriers of muted or faulted gene.

Frequency or carrier rate

The percentage of people in a population that have only one copy of a recessive gene mutation.

Testing of carriers (also known as carrier detection or heterozygote testing)

Individuals with a gene mutation for an autosomal recessive or X-linked recessive illness, or who have a chromosome rearrangement, are tested (translocation or inversion, for example).

Transporting capacity

The maximum number of persons or individuals of a specific species that a particular area of the environment can sustain indefinitely.

Catalyst

A material that lowers the activation energy of a chemical process, therefore increasing the pace of the reaction. The reaction has no effect on the material.

Gene with a causal effect

A gene that has been linked to the development of a specific hereditary disorder in a variant form. Causative genes cause monogenic genetic disorders. Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anaemia, and Huntington's illness are examples.

Cell

The fundamental unit of an animal body and the lowest category of life thought to be attainable. Most organisms are made up of several cells, each of which becomes specialised in order for the entire organism to operate effectively. Each body organ has different types of cells, and the nucleus, which contains chromosomes, or large coils of DNA, is at the core of each cell. DNA not only serves as a blueprint for a cell's production of proteins to carry out its role, but also as a design for the entire body.

Therapies based on cells

Treatments that cause stem cells to develop into the exact cell type needed to heal injured or depleted adult cell populations or tissues.

Cell culture is a technique for cultivating cells in a lab.

Cell division is the process by which cells divide.

The process through which cells multiply during tissue or organ development.

Cellulose

Carbohydrate that makes up the majority of wood and other biomass. The wood cells' structural framework is made up of it.

Diversity's epicentre

A geographical area having a lot of genetic or species variety.

Varieties in personality

Under conditions where humanity's influence on the ecosystem is no higher than that of any other biotic element, the pattern of distribution and abundance of populations, species, and habitats.

Chelation

It employs an agent, such as the chemical compound EDTA, to wrap or bind the minerals in amino acids and remove heavy metals from the body.

Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) is a coatings deposition technology in which chemicals are vaporised and then deposited using an inert carrier gas like nitrogen.

Chips

Wood fragments that have been chopped or fractured by mechanical means. Wood, bark, and leaves are all included in total tree chips. Clean chips, also known as pulp chips, are free of bark and vegetation.

Chorion

The placenta develops from the chorion. Chorionic cells share the same genetic make-up as foetal cells. During a prenatal diagnostic test termed CVS, cells from the chorion are taken (chorionic villus sampling).

CVS stands for chorionic villus sampling, which is the genetic testing of a small tissue sample taken from outside the sac where the foetus develops.

Chromatography is a physical separation procedure in which the components to be separated are divided into two phases (or media), one of which is fixed and the other travels in a certain direction.

Chromosome

The self-replicating genetic structure of cells, made up of a strand of coiled DNA. Each animal cell (excluding red blood cells) has at least one chromosome in its nucleus, and the number of chromosomes in each cell varies by animal. Humans have 23 chromosomal pairs, including the sex chromosomes (two X chromosomes for females versus an X and a Y chromosome for males). Chromosomes are held together by chromatin proteins.

a long-term health problem

A chronic health condition, such as cancer or asthma, that lasts for a long time.

Class

A taxonomic category that exists between the phylum and the order.

Clinical genetics is a branch of medicine focused with identifying and mitigating the risks of acquiring a genetically based illness in people and families.

Trials in the clinic

Controlled trials with a specified set of patients who have been screened and meet strict inclusion criteria.

Clone 1. A genetically identical organism formed without the need of sexual reproduction. 2. A collection of genes, cells, or creatures that all share a common ancestor. Each clone has the same genetic makeup.

Cloning is the process of creating a collection of genetically identical genes, cells, or organisms from a common ancestor.

Clostridium

A type of anaerobic bacterium that can survive without oxygen. It contains bacteria that cause botulism, gas gangrene, and tetanus.

Clostridium perfringens is a bacterial infection caused by Clostridium per fringe

A type of bacteria that is the most prevalent cause of gas gangrene and can also cause food poisoning and necrotizing colitis, a severe form of bowel illness.

Bioscience glossary (B)

 

 Bioscience glossary 

B cells

Small white blood cells assist the body in fighting infection. They evolve into plasma cells, which create antibodies, and are formed in the bone marrow. B lymphocytes are another name for these cells.

Bacillus

A huge bacterial family with a rod-like form. They include germs that cause food to spoil as well as bacteria that cause certain diseases. Bacillus bacteria are employed to generate antibiotics and colonize the human gastrointestinal tract and help digestion.

Bacillus thuringiensis (B. thuringiensis)

A type of soil bacteria that contains the genes for the Bt toxins, a class of insecticides. Bt toxins are produced differently by different strains of the bacteria. This bacterium is used by some organic farmers as an alternative to using chemicals to manage pest insects. Cotton plants have had the genes for Bt toxins genetically modified into them, allowing them to generate the pesticides.

Bacteria

Microscopes are required to see tiny, one-celled organisms that are found throughout the environment. Bacteria can live as free-living creatures or as parasitic organisms (dependent upon another organism for life). Although not all germs are hazardous, some do cause illness. Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, Hemophilus influenza, and pneumococcus are examples of bacterial diseases (pneumonia).

Balanced diet

The overall dietary pattern of foods ingested that offer all of the required nutrients in the optimum levels to support life functions, such as child growth, without causing excessive weight gain.

Bark

Outside of the cambium, a tree's outer protective layer consists of the inner and outer bark. The inner bark is a layer of living bark that separates the outer bark from the cambium and is generally soft and wet in a living tree. The outer bark is a layer of dead bark that covers the tree stem's outside surface. Frequently, the outer bark is dry and corky.

Base

Adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine are four types of simple molecules or nucleotides that make up the subunits (building blocks) of DNA and RNA.

The foundational sequence

The nucleotide base order in a DNA molecule.

Bioavailability

The rate and extent to which medicine or nutritional supplement is absorbed into the bloodstream, allowing access to the auction site. The concentration in body fluids, mainly blood, or the amplitude of the pharmacological response.

Biodegradable product

It refers to a product determined by the Secretary of Agriculture to be a commercial or industrial product (other than food or feed) that is made up entirely or substantially of biological products or renewable domestic agricultural materials (including plant, animal, and marine materials) or forestry materials, as defined by the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act.

Biochemical transformation

The process of producing fuels and chemicals from organic materials through fermentation or anaerobic digestion.

Biodiesel

Vegetable or animal fats are used to make fuel. When a vegetable oil or animal fat chemically interacts with alcohol, it produces it. the pharmacological reactions used to determine the dosage. Expressed as a percentage of a given dose.

Biodiversity

A region's or the world's entirety of genes, species, and ecosystems.

Bioenergy

1. Energy derived from organic matter that is useful and renewable. 2. The conversion of organic matter's complex polysaccharides to energy. Organic matter can be used as a fuel directly, converted into liquids and gases, or left behind as a byproduct of processing and conversion.

Biofuels

Biofuels are fuels derived from biomass resources or derivatives of their processing and conversion. Ethanol, biodiesel, and methanol are examples of biofuels.

Biogas

Biogas is a flammable gas produced by the anaerobic decomposition of biological waste. Biogas usually has a methane content of 50-60%.

Biogeography is the scientific study of organisms' geographic distribution.

Bioinformatics is a branch of computer science that deals with the management and analysis of biological data. Bioinformatics is especially useful as a supplement to genomic research, which creates a significant amount of complicated data involving hundreds of thousands of genes and DNA sequences.

Biological Attack

The intentional release of germs or other biological substances that have the potential to make people sick.

 Biology Plausibility

A causal relationship (or relationship between two elements) that is supported by medical evidence.

Biological Resources

Biodiversity components that are directly, indirectly, or potentially useful to humans.

A biomarker is a type of marker that indicates the presence of a disease or a risk of developing one. Blood cholesterol, for example, is a biomarker for heart disease risk.

Biomass is any organic stuff generated by plants. Herbaceous and woody energy crops, agricultural food and feed crops, agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood wastes and residues, aquatic plants, and other waste materials, including some municipal wastes, are all examples of biomass that can be used for energy on a long-term basis. Biomass is a chemically complex and heterogeneous renewable resource. Phyto mass, tender mass, zoomass, waste (domestic and industrial waste), biodegradable materials, residue-sourced materials, recycled materials, food production residues, agricultural residues, animal residues, vegetable residues, biomass materials, and innovative waste materials are just a few of the terms used to describe biomass (poultry litter, coffee residues, mustard husks, and spice waste).

Biomass processing leftovers

Byproducts of all types of biomass processing with high energy potential. Solid wood products and log pulp, for example, result in bark, shavings, sawdust, and spent pulping liquors. These residues can be convenient and relatively inexpensive sources of biomass for energy because they are already collected at the point of processing.

Biome is a large component of a region's living habitat that is defined by its unique vegetation and maintained by local climatic conditions.

Biopharming

Pharmaceuticals, such as consumable vaccinations and antibodies, are produced in plants or domestic animals.

Biopower is the use of biomass as a fuel to generate electricity or heat through direct combustion, gasification, and then combustion of the resulting gas, or other thermal conversion processes. Engines, turbines, fuel cells, and other equipment are used to create electricity.

Biorefinery is a facility that processes and converts biomass into value-added products, such as biomaterials, fuels like ethanol, and key feedstocks for the production of chemicals and other materials.

Biological, social, and geographic elements, rather than geopolitical considerations, define a bioregion.

Plants and microorganisms are used to consume or assist in the removal of items (such as toxic chemical wastes and metals) from contaminated locations in bioremediation (especially from soil and water). 2. A natural process in which bacteria or other microorganisms break down a hazardous chemical, such as oil, into less dangerous compounds to cure environmental concerns.

Biota refers to all of the creatures found in a certain location, including animals, plants, fungi, and microbes.

1. A set of biological procedures created through basic research and currently used in product development and research. Recombinant DNA, cell fusion, and innovative bioprocessing techniques are all examples of biotechnology. 2. Any technological application that makes or modifies items or processes for a specific user using biological systems, living creatures, or derivatives thereof. 3. The application of living organisms or biological procedures developed through fundamental research in the industrial sector. Antibiotics, beer, cheese, insulin, interferon, recombinant DNA, and waste recycling are examples of biotechnology products.

Biotechnology-derived

To generate goods or impart specialized capabilities to plants or other living beings using molecular biology and/or recombinant DNA technologies or in vitro gene transfer.

Bioterrorism

Bioterrorism is a type of terrorism that uses biological agents. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has created a list of biological diseases and agents that could be used in terrorism, and the list includes a large number of select agents — potential weapons whose transfer in the scientific and medical communities is regulated to keep them out of the hands of unfriendly people.

Blastocyst

About 150 cells in a preimplantation embryo. The blastocyst is made up of a sphere with an exterior layer of cells (trophectoderm), a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoel), and a cluster of cells on the inside (the inner cell mass).

 Blastocyst Division

When a fertilized egg divides into a mass of 32 to 150 cells, it is said to be fertilized.

Blastomeres Separation

Separation of embryonic cells, known as blastomeres, for use in the production of several genetically identical creatures.

Body mass index (BMI) is an indirect measure of body fat that is derived by multiplying a person's weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters. [weight (lbs.)/(height in inches)2] x 703 = BMI = weight (kg)/height (m2). BMI-for-age, which is used to measure underweight, overweight, and risk of overweight in children and adolescents, is based on growth charts for age and gender and is referred to as BMI-for-age.

Booster doses

Additional vaccination doses are required regularly to "boost" the immune system. Adults, for example, should get the tetanus and diphtheria (Td) vaccine every ten years.

Botanical

It's a plant-based item.

Nanotechnology from the ground up

Atom by atom or molecule by molecule, organic and inorganic structures are built.

Botulism

It's a type of food poisoning that causes muscle paralysis due to the nerve toxin botulinum (botox), which is produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum.

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a bovine disease that is similar to sheep scrapie and is also known as mad cow disease. It's assumed to be caused by a prion, or tiny protein, that changes the structure of a normal brain protein, causing brain neuronal tissue to be destroyed.

Infection that has made a breakthrough

Despite a person's response to a vaccine, a disease develops.

Brucellosis

Fever, sweats, malaise, weakness, anorexia, headache, myalgia (muscle pain), and back pain are all symptoms of Brucella, an infectious disease caused by the bacteria Brucella.

Bt crops are genetically modified crops.

Crops that have been genetically modified to carry a gene from the Bacillus thuringiensis soil bacterium (Bt). Some pests are poisoned by the bacterium's proteins, while humans and other animals are unaffected. Crops with the Bt gene can manufacture the toxin, which protects the plant. Commercially available Bt crops include Bt corn and Bt cotton.

Bt toxins

Bacillus thuringiensis produces insecticidal proteins in the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis.

Buckminsterfullerene

A Bucky ball is a spherical made up of 60 carbon atoms.

Zone of buffering

The territory is on the outskirts of a protected area.

 

Bioscience glossary (A)

 BIOSCIENCE GLOSSARY

Abnormal

Any deviation from the norm or "correct." It doesn't have to indicate destructive or unfavorable; it could instead mean abnormal, unusual, or strange. An faulty gene can cause a specific disorder when used in reference to genes.

Abortion

Termination of a pregnancy before it is due to be born.

Absorption

The ability of a dietary supplement to be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Vaccine with acellular components

A vaccine that contains partial cellular material rather than whole cells.

Immunity that is active

The immune system's generation of antibodies against a certain illness. Active immunity can be obtained in one of two ways: by contracting the disease or via vaccination. Active immunity is usually lifelong, meaning that a person is immune to the disease for the rest of his or her life.

Acute

A powerful, short-term health effect.

Adaptation

A genetically programmed trait that improves an organism's ability to adapt to its surroundings.

Adequate calorie intake

A dosage guideline that can be seen on a product label in the absence of recommended daily dietary allowance information is branded as daily values.

Adult stem cells are cells that have developed into adults.

An undifferentiated cell found in a developed tissue can renew itself and differentiate to produce all of the specialized cell types of the tissue from which it originated, subject to certain limits. Because humans are born with so-called adult stem cells in our tissue, the nomenclature is ambiguous; many scientists prefer to refer to them as somatic stem cells.

Biotechnology in agriculture

Traditional breeding techniques that alter living organisms or sections of organisms to manufacture or modify products, better plants or animals, or develop microbes for specific agricultural uses are among the instruments available. The tools of genetic engineering are used in modern biotechnology.

AIDS is a disease that affects millions of (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

A medical illness in which the immune system fails to defend the body against disease and function effectively. As a result, the body is unable to fight infections (such as pneumonia). AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is transmitted by direct contact with an infected person's blood and bodily fluids. Although there is no cure for AIDS, research to produce a vaccine is ongoing.

Species of aliens

As a result of purposeful or unintentional dispersal by human actions, a species now lives in an area outside its previously recognized natural range.

Allele

At a certain gene position on a chromosome, one of two or more alternative versions of a gene exists. Inherited traits such as hair color and blood type are affected by different alleles. One form of the allele (the dominant one) may be expressed more than another form in an individual (the recessive one).

Allergen

A chemical that can produce an allergy or allergic reaction in the body, usually a protein.

Allergy

After being exposed to a specific material, usually a protein, the immune system reacts.

Alzheimer's disease is a type of dementia.

A gradual, degenerative illness of the brain that causes memory, cognitive, and behavior problems. Although not all cases of Alzheimer's disease are inherited, genes for family versions of the disease have been discovered.

A kind of amino acid

A protein's fundamental building block. A total of 20 amino acids are found in the human body. A protein, also known as a polypeptide chain, is made up of long chains of amino acids. Phenylalanine, threonine, and alanine are some examples.

Amniocentesis

A method of collecting amniotic fluid for the purpose of prenatal diagnostics. 2. A uterine sample of amniotic fluid is genetically analyzed.

Anthrax

The spore-forming bacteria Bacillus anthracis causes a noncontagious, possibly deadly sickness when inhaled, eaten, or absorbed through incisions in the skin.

Antigen

A chemical that helps the body produce antibodies. Pollen grains, dust, bacteria or viruses, and most proteins are examples.

Antioxidant

Free radicals are molecules that speed up the aging process and lead to sickness. A chemical that prevents or inhibits their activity. Free radicals can be present in rancid fats and oils, as well as in the environment.

Antitoxins

Antibodies that can neutralize a toxic or hazardous material. The toxins produced by the invading bacteria induce the symptoms of some diseases such as botulism, tetanus, and diphtheria.

Antiviral

Any drug that has the ability to kill or weaken a virus. The phrase directly translates to "against virus."

Mutation that is autosomal dominant

A dominant mutation in a gene that is passed down through the generations on an autosome.

Gene that is inherited from both parents

An autosomal gene is one that is found on a single chromosome.

Mutation that is autosomal recessive

A recessive mutation in an autosome-borne gene.

Autosomal characteristics

Other than the sex chromosomes, traits carried on the chromosomes (X and Y).

Autosome

Any non-sex chromosome (not an X or Y chromosome).

A vaccine that has been weakened

A live virus is attenuated using chemical or physical procedures in order to elicit an immune response without generating the disease's severe consequences. Measles, mumps, rubella, polio, yellow fever, and varicella are among the attenuated vaccinations currently available in the United States. A live vaccine is also known as a living vaccine.

Animal behaviorist

 

Animal behaviorist

DEFINITION:

The scientific study of animal behavior is known as animal behaviorism and it entails looking into everything that animals do. single-cell creatures invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and animals are involved in the animal investigation. Animal behaviorists study how animals interact with their surroundings as well as other organisms. Animals’ inability to find and defend resources, avoid predators, choose partners, breed, and care for their young are among the issue studied.

EXPLANATION:

Animals behaviors researchers are interested in learning about the causes, functions, development, and evolution of animal behavior. Animals behaviorists will investigate the function of behavior as well as behavior’s impact on animals and its adaptive significance in assisting the animal’s survival or reproduction in a given environment. The animal behaviorist will also look at the development of behavior to see how it evolved throughout an animal’s life and how it is influenced by both genes and experience.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES

Government and private sector

Many animals behaviorist work in government laboratories or private businesses or industries and many of them entail health-related research. Animal behaviorists may be hired by drug firms or government laboratories to perform a study on the behavioral effect of new pharmaceuticals on animals, to investigate the link between animal behavior and disease, or to assess the well-being of animals in their care. Animal behaviorists are occasionally hired by state and federal government entities in charge of natural resource management initiatives. Behaviorists are increasingly being hired by private environmental consulting organizations to investigate the effects of habitat change on animal feeding patterns, spatial dispersion, and reproductive processes.

A Ph.D. is required for many of these jobs, and training is also required. Training in relevant subjects such as physiology, biochemistry, or pharmacology is very beneficial for health-related occupations.

 College Research and Teaching

The majority of animal behaviorists work at colleges and universities, where they teach and/or do independent research. Many behaviorists work in biology, zoology, or psychology departments at universities. Departments of anthropology, sociology, neuroscience, animal science, wildlife biology, entomology, and ecology, as well as medical and veterinary colleges, employ other behaviorists.

A Ph.D. is normally required for careers in college teaching and research, while some junior colleges simply require a master's degree. The majority of animal behavior employment is found in larger academic departments, and animal behaviorists frequently teach in fields including physiology, ecology, and evolution. Students who earn a Ph.D. in a program that focuses on behavioral or biological sciences have an advantage in the job market; even though animal behavior is a burgeoning field, competition for teaching and research positions remains fierce.

 

Zoos & Aquariums, Environmental Organizations, and Museums

Animal behaviorists are occasionally hired as curators or researchers by zoos, aquariums, and museums. Curators are in charge of acquiring, maintaining, and displaying animal collections, whereas researchers are in charge of scientific studies on such creatures.

Behavioral research in zoos and aquariums is usually targeted at enhancing animal health and reproduction. Behaviorists frequently work closely with field biologists that specialize in endocrinology, nutrition, genetics, and veterinary medicine in this capacity. Museum behavioral research can span a wide range of themes, although it mainly focuses on aspects of ecology and natural history.

Animal behaviorists are employed by some conservation organizations, particularly those that fund long-term field research or are involved in reintroduction programs (the release of captive animals into an area that was once part of a species' historical range but has since been removed or extinct), nature preserve design, or sustainable wildlife use. As these organizations grow in size and popularity, the number of job openings for animal behaviorists in the area should rise. Curators, researchers, and conservationists typically have a Ph.D. or DVM in biology, as well as thorough training in at least one other field, such as animal husbandry (the agricultural activity of breeding and raising cattle), ecology, entomology, ornithology, mammalogy, or primatology.

Researchers who specialize in animal behavior education are also employed by zoos, aquariums, and museums. Educators use tours, lectures, and instructional displays to share their understanding of animal behavior with the general public. A B.S., M.S., or Ph.D. in biological or behavioral sciences is required of educators. It is usually recommended if you have some specific training or experience in secondary or adult education.

 Other Research Prospects

Universities, zoos, museums, government agencies, and private facilities frequently engage paid research assistants to assist with ongoing animal behavior studies. These behaviorists operate under the guidance of professors and staff researchers to assist in the design, execution, and analysis of animal behavior studies. Depending on the nature of the study endeavor, research assistants may work in laboratories or in the field. Full-time research assistants usually have a bachelor's or master's degree, while part-time research assistants usually have a bachelor's or master's degree.

EDUCATION/TRAINING

The majority of scientists that engage directly with animals work in one of four fields: ethology (the scientific study of animal behavior), comparative psychology, behavioral ecology, or anthropology. The goals, interests, and methodologies of these fields are quite similar. Behavioral ecologists have concentrated on how animal behavioral patterns connect to social and environmental contexts, whereas psychologists and ethologists have mostly been interested in the control and functions of animal behavior. Ethologists and behavioral ecologists are often educated in biology, zoology, ecology and evolution, entomology, wildlife, and other animal sciences departments. The majority of comparative psychologists receive their education in psychology departments.

Some animal behavior careers just demand a B.A. or B.S. degree. However, most animal behavior occupations necessitate considerable training

SALARY

Animal behaviorists made an average salary of $71,830 in May 2015, according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics. The lowest-paid ten percent of animal behaviorists earned $37,830 or less per year, while the highest-paid ten percent earned more than $100,000 per year.

 

Molecular biology

 

Molecular biology

DEFINITION:

The study of the structure, function and makeup of the molecular building elements of life is known as molecular biology.

EXPLANATION:

It focuses on the interactions between a cell's numerous processes, such as the interplay between DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis, and how these relationships are controlled. Molecular biology, the most recent of the biosciences, is closely linked to biochemistry, genetics, and cell biology.

Molecular biology dates back to the 1930s when scientists sought to understand life's phenomena by examining the macromolecules that make it possible. Beginning in 1940, the breakthroughs in molecular biology occurred over a 25-y25 years study of the structure, function, and makeup of the molecular building elements of life known as molecular biology. It focuses on the interactions between a cell's numerous processes, such as the interplay between DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis, and how these relationships are controlled. Molecular biology, the most recent of the biosciences, is closely linked to biochemistry, genetics, and cell biology. Molecular biology dates back to the 1930s when scientists sought to understand life's phenomena by examining the macromolecules that make it possible. Beginning in 1940, the breakthroughs in molecular biology occurred over 25-ye25 years standing how molecules conduct metabolism, or how they process the energy required to sustain life, was another significant breakthrough. Molecular biologists may now investigate higher plants and animals using genetic engineering techniques, which opens up the possibility of modifying plant and animal genes to increase agricultural productivity. These techniques also paved the path for gene therapy to take off.

With the start of the now-completed Human Genome Project in 1990, an ambitious international endeavor in molecular biology began (HGP). Its mission was to find all 20,000 to 25,000 human genes and make them available for further scientific research.

Another goal of the study was to decipher the entire sequence of the three billion DNA components (bases in the human genome). Parallel studies on selected model species such as the bacterium E. coli and the mouse were conducted as part of the HGP to aid in the development of technology and the interpretation of human gene function. The HGP was co-sponsored by the Department of Energy Human Genome Program and the National Human Genome Research Institute of the National Institutes of Health.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY SUBDISCIPLINES

Genomics Comparative

This is the study of human genetics through comparisons with model organisms including mice, fruit flies, and E. coli bacteria.

DNA Forensics is a branch of forensic science that deals with the study

This is when DNA is used to identify someone. The use of DNA in child support disputes, establishing paternity, establishing the presence of a suspect at a crime scene, and identifying accident victims are just a few instances.

Functional Genomics is a branch of genomics that studies how

This is the study of genes, the proteins that they produce, and the role that proteins play in the biochemical processes of the body.

Gene Therapy is a type of gene therapy that involves

This is a process for replacing, modifying, or augmenting nonfunctioning or misfunctioning genes with healthy genes in an experimental setting.

Genomics

The study of genes and their functions is referred to as genetics.

Genetics at the molecular level

The study of macromolecules that play a role in biological heredity.

Pharmacogenomics

This is the study of how a person's genetic composition interacts with their pharmacological reaction.

Proteomics

This is the study of a genome's complete set of proteins.

Structural Genomics is a branch of genomics that focuses on the structure

This is a project that aims to discover the three-dimensional structures of a large number of proteins using both experimental and computer simulation techniques.

Toxicogenomic

This is the study of how genomes react to stressors or toxicants in the environment.

MICROBIOLOGY

 

MICROBIOLOGY

DEFINITION:

Microbiology is the study of unicellular or cell-cluster organisms and infectious agents that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Eukaryotes (organisms with a nucleus), such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes (organisms without a nucleus), such as bacteria, are included in this category.

EXPLANATION:

The study of microbes has provided fundamental insight into how a cell functions. Microbiology, on the other hand, is an applied science that aids agriculture, health and medicine, environmental preservation, and the biotechnology business. Microbiologists investigate bacteria at three levels: community level (ecology and epidemiology), cell level (cell biology and physiology), and protein and gene level (molecular biology).

Microorganisms play a critical role in our daily lives. Some are responsible for a large number of diseases that harm not only humans but also plants and animals, while others are critical for the preservation and modification of our ecosystem. Others are used in the manufacturing of food, beverages, and antibiotics, and their distinctive qualities have been harnessed. Scientists have also discovered ways to use microorganisms in the field of molecular biology, which has a huge impact on both the industrial and medical sectors. Immunology, the study of the body's ability to mount defenses against infectious germs, is included in microbiology.

Because microbiology is defined as the study of organisms that are not visible to the human eye, we can call Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a late-17th-century Dutch scientist, the discipline's founder. Leeuwenhoek was the first to characterize small cells and germs, and he developed new procedures for grinding and polishing microscope lenses that allowed for curvatures of up to 270 diameters, the best available magnification at the time. While Van Leeuwenhoek is credited with being the first microbiologist, the earliest documented microbiological observation – mold fruiting structures — was made by English physicist Robert Hooke in 1665.

Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, who are considered the founders of medical microbiology, are two more prominent figures in science history who produced fundamental discoveries about microbes. Pasteur is most known for a series of experiments that disproved the commonly believed hypothesis of spontaneous generation at the time, firmly establishing microbiology's status as a biological discipline. Pasteur also developed food preservation technologies (pasteurization) and vaccinations for diseases like anthrax, chicken cholera, and rabies. Koch is most recognized for his contributions to the germ theory of illness, which demonstrated that certain diseases are caused by certain pathogenic microbes. Koch's postulates are a set of criteria that he developed.

Koch was one of the first scientists to concentrate on the separation of bacteria in pure culture, which led to the discovery of several new bacteria, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the tuberculosis causative agent.

Finally, some of the most significant discoveries affecting public health occurred in the twentieth century, including Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin, which sparked a race to discover another natural, and eventually synthetic, antibiotics; the development of critical vaccines, such as those for polio and yellow fever; and the birth of molecular biology, which began in the 1940s with the study of bacteria.

MICROBIOLOGY SUBDISCIPLINES

Bacteriology

Bacterial science is the study of bacteria.

Microbiology of the Environment

The function and diversity of microorganisms in their natural settings are studied in this field.

Microbiology in Evolution

Microbiology is the study of the evolution of microorganisms.

Microbiology of Food

Microorganisms that cause food spoilage, as well as those involved in the production of foods like cheese and beer, are studied in this field.

Microbiology in Industry

The employment of microorganisms in industrial processes such as industrial fermentation and wastewater treatment is referred to as this. This field is strongly associated with the biotechnology business.

Microbiology in Medicine (or Clinical Microbiology)

The role of bacteria in human sickness is investigated in this field. It is connected to the study of disease pathology and immunology and encompasses the study of microbial pathogenesis and epidemiology.

Genetics of Microorganisms

This is the research into how genes in microorganisms are structured and controlled in connection to their biological functions. The field of molecular biology is strongly tied to this subdiscipline.

Physiology of Microbes

This is the study of how the biochemistry of a microbial cell works. The study of microbial growth, microbial metabolism, and microbial cell structure are all included.

Mycology

The study of fungi is known as mycology.

Microbiology in Veterinary Medicine

In veterinary medicine, this is the study of the role of microorganisms.

Virology

The study of viruses is known as virology.

IMMUNOLOGY

 

IMMUNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Our bodies are continually under attack by millions of unseen foes, including viruses, bacteria, fungus, parasites, and other disease-causing pathogens that can penetrate our bodies and cause disease. Fortunately, most of us have a massive army on constant alert with an effective armament ready to combat these intruders. The immune system is that army.

DEFINITION:

Immunology is the study of the immune system, which is made up of a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that communicate via a sophisticated and sensitive system.

EXPLANATION:

 A variety of white blood cells (leukocytes) and antibodies are always on the lookout for infections, ready to leap into action and send out chemical instructions through the bloodstream. Immunologists can improve the immune system's performance by better knowing what these cells and molecules do and how they communicate with one another (for example, by developing new vaccines). They can also figure out how to inhibit the immune system from reacting to an inappropriate target, such as in allergies (a hyper reaction to pollen or other allergens) or autoimmune illnesses (when the immune system reacts against your own body).

Our bodies use three primary ways to defend ourselves from infection:

By erecting nonspecific barriers to prevent germs and viruses from taking hold. Skin, mucus discharges in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems, saliva, tears, and stomach acid are all examples of these.

Beneficial bacteria that live in the intestines and help digest specific types of food (known as the normal flora) compete with pathogenic bacteria for food and space, reducing the likelihood of disease-causing pathogens multiplying and causing sickness.

By relying on our innate immune system to detect invaders that get past the first line of defense. Innate immunity cells and other systems sense and respond to infections in a nonspecific manner, and they do not provide long-term or protective immunity. They are phagocytic ("eating") cells that ingest and consume pathogens and particles. Phosphatic leukocytes include macrophages, polymorphonuclear cells, dendritic cells, and mast cells. The natural killer cell is a nonphagocytic member of the innate immune system (the part of the immune system with specialized cells that identify and typically eradicate a bodily invader before it can proliferate) (NK). The NK does not directly assault a disease; instead, it destroys contaminated cells. Tumor cells are also attacked by NK cells.

If pathogens get past the barriers and phagocytes and start multiplying, a unique adaptive immune response is activated. Adaptive immunity is based on our lymphocytes' unique ability to discriminate between the body's cells (self) and undesirable invaders (no-self) based on distinct self-markers on our cells. The natural killer cell is a nonphagocytic member of the innate immune system (the part of the immune system with specialized cells that identify and typically eradicate a bodily invader before it can proliferate) (NK). The NK does not directly assault a disease; instead, it destroys contaminated cells. Tumor cells are also attacked by NK cells.

If pathogens get past the barriers and phagocytes and start multiplying, a unique adaptive immune response is activated. Because of different self-markers on our cells, our lymphocytes have a remarkable ability to distinguish between the body's cells (self) and undesirable invaders (no-self), which is the foundation of adaptive immunity. When our immune self-defenses across organisms or cells with "foreign" marks, they initiate an attack right away. The adaptive immune response allows the immune system to detect a pathogen and mount a stronger and faster attack each time the disease is encountered.

An antigen is something that can cause an immunological reaction. A germ, such as a virus, or even a portion of a microbe, can be an antigen. Antigens are no self-indicators carried by tissues or cells from another person (excluding identical twins). This helps to understand why tissue transplants are sometimes rejected. B cells and T cells are the two main types of lymphocytes that make up our immune system. B cells primarily function by secreting antibodies into the body's fluids. Antibodies swoop down on antigens in the bloodstream. They are unable to penetrate cells, though. T cells and other immune cells are in charge of fighting target cells, whether they've been infected by viruses or have been warped by cancer.

T cells, unlike B cells, do not identify antigens that are floating in the air. Rather, they have specific antibody-like receptors on their surfaces that detect antigen fragments on the surfaces of infected or malignant cells. T cells aid immune defenses in two ways: some guide and regulate immunological responses, while others help to suppress them. The cells, or helper T cells, communicate with other cells to coordinate immune responses. Some activate surrounding T cells, while others summon in phagocytes and stimulate nearby B cells to generate antibodies.

Killer T cells, also known as CTLs or cytotoxic T lymphocytes, have a different purpose. By connecting to other cells and delivering a fatal blast of chemicals that they safely carry within small membrane "bags" called granules, these cells directly assault other cells containing particular foreign or aberrant molecules on their surfaces. CTLs are very effective against viruses that are developing within infected cells. Small bits of these viruses peeking out from the Some of the B cells and T cells that participated in the attack on a foreign invader go on to become memory cells with a long lifespan. They can reproduce to mount a faster and stronger immune response in a second encounter with the invader. The scientific basis for immunization is this phenomenon.

The immune system's diverse cells create and secrete a variety of chemicals that alert other cells to the presence of an invader and aid in the activation of an immune response. Histamine (which dilates blood vessels, produces inflammation, and draws neutrophils and macrophages), interferons (which are released when viruses and tumor cells are encountered), and interleukins (which are released when viruses and tumor cells are encountered) are among them (which are vital to the functions of the immune system). The cell membrane is recognized by CTLs, which start an attack to kill the cell.

IMMUNOLOGICAL SUBDISCIPLINES

 Immunogenetics

This includes research on the genetics (inheritance) of immunological responses, such as the Rh and ABO blood groups, or the HLA system, which is vital in kidney and other transplants. The field also looks into the genetics of an individual's antigen-response capabilities.

Immunology in Clinical Practice

From a medical standpoint, this is the study of diseases produced by the immune system and disorders of the immune system. The majority of these illnesses fall into one of three categories: immunodeficiency, in which parts of the immune system fail to respond adequately; autoimmunity, in which the immune system attacks its cells; and hypersensitivity, in which the immune system reacts inappropriately to harmless compounds (allergies and asthma) or responds inappropriately to harmful compounds (allergies and asthma).

AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a classic example of an immune-system disorder. It is defined by the absence of T helper cells and macrophages, both of which are killed by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).

Clinical immunologists also research techniques to reduce organ transplant rejection and increase the immune system's ability to combat cancer.

Immunology at the molecular level

This mostly entails investigating the chemicals released by cells that regulate immune cell migration and activity. Chemicals that attract cells to an infection location and start the inflammatory process are examples of such compounds.

Immunology of the Cells

T cells are the subject of this research.

Immunology of the Humoral

The focus of this research is on B cells and the antibodies they make.