IMMUNOLOGY

 

IMMUNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Our bodies are continually under attack by millions of unseen foes, including viruses, bacteria, fungus, parasites, and other disease-causing pathogens that can penetrate our bodies and cause disease. Fortunately, most of us have a massive army on constant alert with an effective armament ready to combat these intruders. The immune system is that army.

DEFINITION:

Immunology is the study of the immune system, which is made up of a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that communicate via a sophisticated and sensitive system.

EXPLANATION:

 A variety of white blood cells (leukocytes) and antibodies are always on the lookout for infections, ready to leap into action and send out chemical instructions through the bloodstream. Immunologists can improve the immune system's performance by better knowing what these cells and molecules do and how they communicate with one another (for example, by developing new vaccines). They can also figure out how to inhibit the immune system from reacting to an inappropriate target, such as in allergies (a hyper reaction to pollen or other allergens) or autoimmune illnesses (when the immune system reacts against your own body).

Our bodies use three primary ways to defend ourselves from infection:

By erecting nonspecific barriers to prevent germs and viruses from taking hold. Skin, mucus discharges in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems, saliva, tears, and stomach acid are all examples of these.

Beneficial bacteria that live in the intestines and help digest specific types of food (known as the normal flora) compete with pathogenic bacteria for food and space, reducing the likelihood of disease-causing pathogens multiplying and causing sickness.

By relying on our innate immune system to detect invaders that get past the first line of defense. Innate immunity cells and other systems sense and respond to infections in a nonspecific manner, and they do not provide long-term or protective immunity. They are phagocytic ("eating") cells that ingest and consume pathogens and particles. Phosphatic leukocytes include macrophages, polymorphonuclear cells, dendritic cells, and mast cells. The natural killer cell is a nonphagocytic member of the innate immune system (the part of the immune system with specialized cells that identify and typically eradicate a bodily invader before it can proliferate) (NK). The NK does not directly assault a disease; instead, it destroys contaminated cells. Tumor cells are also attacked by NK cells.

If pathogens get past the barriers and phagocytes and start multiplying, a unique adaptive immune response is activated. Adaptive immunity is based on our lymphocytes' unique ability to discriminate between the body's cells (self) and undesirable invaders (no-self) based on distinct self-markers on our cells. The natural killer cell is a nonphagocytic member of the innate immune system (the part of the immune system with specialized cells that identify and typically eradicate a bodily invader before it can proliferate) (NK). The NK does not directly assault a disease; instead, it destroys contaminated cells. Tumor cells are also attacked by NK cells.

If pathogens get past the barriers and phagocytes and start multiplying, a unique adaptive immune response is activated. Because of different self-markers on our cells, our lymphocytes have a remarkable ability to distinguish between the body's cells (self) and undesirable invaders (no-self), which is the foundation of adaptive immunity. When our immune self-defenses across organisms or cells with "foreign" marks, they initiate an attack right away. The adaptive immune response allows the immune system to detect a pathogen and mount a stronger and faster attack each time the disease is encountered.

An antigen is something that can cause an immunological reaction. A germ, such as a virus, or even a portion of a microbe, can be an antigen. Antigens are no self-indicators carried by tissues or cells from another person (excluding identical twins). This helps to understand why tissue transplants are sometimes rejected. B cells and T cells are the two main types of lymphocytes that make up our immune system. B cells primarily function by secreting antibodies into the body's fluids. Antibodies swoop down on antigens in the bloodstream. They are unable to penetrate cells, though. T cells and other immune cells are in charge of fighting target cells, whether they've been infected by viruses or have been warped by cancer.

T cells, unlike B cells, do not identify antigens that are floating in the air. Rather, they have specific antibody-like receptors on their surfaces that detect antigen fragments on the surfaces of infected or malignant cells. T cells aid immune defenses in two ways: some guide and regulate immunological responses, while others help to suppress them. The cells, or helper T cells, communicate with other cells to coordinate immune responses. Some activate surrounding T cells, while others summon in phagocytes and stimulate nearby B cells to generate antibodies.

Killer T cells, also known as CTLs or cytotoxic T lymphocytes, have a different purpose. By connecting to other cells and delivering a fatal blast of chemicals that they safely carry within small membrane "bags" called granules, these cells directly assault other cells containing particular foreign or aberrant molecules on their surfaces. CTLs are very effective against viruses that are developing within infected cells. Small bits of these viruses peeking out from the Some of the B cells and T cells that participated in the attack on a foreign invader go on to become memory cells with a long lifespan. They can reproduce to mount a faster and stronger immune response in a second encounter with the invader. The scientific basis for immunization is this phenomenon.

The immune system's diverse cells create and secrete a variety of chemicals that alert other cells to the presence of an invader and aid in the activation of an immune response. Histamine (which dilates blood vessels, produces inflammation, and draws neutrophils and macrophages), interferons (which are released when viruses and tumor cells are encountered), and interleukins (which are released when viruses and tumor cells are encountered) are among them (which are vital to the functions of the immune system). The cell membrane is recognized by CTLs, which start an attack to kill the cell.

IMMUNOLOGICAL SUBDISCIPLINES

 Immunogenetics

This includes research on the genetics (inheritance) of immunological responses, such as the Rh and ABO blood groups, or the HLA system, which is vital in kidney and other transplants. The field also looks into the genetics of an individual's antigen-response capabilities.

Immunology in Clinical Practice

From a medical standpoint, this is the study of diseases produced by the immune system and disorders of the immune system. The majority of these illnesses fall into one of three categories: immunodeficiency, in which parts of the immune system fail to respond adequately; autoimmunity, in which the immune system attacks its cells; and hypersensitivity, in which the immune system reacts inappropriately to harmless compounds (allergies and asthma) or responds inappropriately to harmful compounds (allergies and asthma).

AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a classic example of an immune-system disorder. It is defined by the absence of T helper cells and macrophages, both of which are killed by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).

Clinical immunologists also research techniques to reduce organ transplant rejection and increase the immune system's ability to combat cancer.

Immunology at the molecular level

This mostly entails investigating the chemicals released by cells that regulate immune cell migration and activity. Chemicals that attract cells to an infection location and start the inflammatory process are examples of such compounds.

Immunology of the Cells

T cells are the subject of this research.

Immunology of the Humoral

The focus of this research is on B cells and the antibodies they make.

Genetics

 

Genetics

DEFINITION:

Genetics is the study of how genes work and how they behave. Genes are molecular instructions made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are found inside the cells of all organisms, from bacteria to humans. Genes, which are found in one or more chromosomes, determine an organism's characteristics, or traits. The genome is the collection of all of an organism's genes. To put it another way, the genome is divided into chromosomes, which contain genes, which are formed from DNA.

EXPLANATION:

Geneticists want to know how cells use and govern the information encoded in genes, as well as how it is passed down from generation to generation. They also look into how minor genetic differences might affect an organism's development or cause disease. Classical genetics refers to genetic approaches and procedures that predate the development of molecular genetics, which investigates the structure and function of genes at the molecular level. Classical genetics is primarily concerned with the way by which genetic features are transmitted in plants and animals, and it remains the foundation for all other issues in genetics. These traits are classed as dominant (always expressed), recessive (subordinate to a dominant trait), intermediate (partially expressed), or polygenic (either expressed or not expressed) (due to multiple genes). Furthermore, the features are either sex-linked (due to the action of a gene on one of the sex chromosomes) or autosomal (due to the action of a gene on one of the sex chromosomes) (result from the action of a gene on a chromosome other than a sex chromosome). Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, pioneered classical genetics by tracing the inheritance patterns of specific features in pea plants and demonstrating that they could be quantitatively expressed ("Mendel's laws"). Experiments on Plant Hybridization, Mendel's 1865 article, went mostly overlooked until the early twentieth century. The inheritance patterns discovered by Mendel are currently used in the study of genetic illnesses.

Molecular genetics uses genetics and molecular biology tools to study the development, structure, and function of macromolecules that are necessary to live (such as nucleic acids and proteins), as well as their role in cell replication and genetic information transfer. The revelation of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 considerably expanded the research options available to geneticists. In the 1970s, scientists were able to start sequencing genes (determining the exact order of the four subunits of DNA — adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine); cloning genes (producing a replica of a gene from one organism), and moving genes from one organism to another to create genetically modified organisms thanks to the discovery of restriction enzymes (which catalyze the cleavage of DNA at specific sites to produce discrete fragments) (GMOs). Recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering refers to the combination of the two methods.

GENETICS SUBDISCIPLINES

Genetics of Populations, Quantitative Genetics, and Ecological Genetics

Population genetics, quantitative genetics, and ecological genetics are all subfields of classical genetics (supplemented with modern molecular genetics). Though they all investigate populations of species, their focus differs slightly. Natural selection, mutations, and migration all influence the distribution of genes, and population genetics analyses how their frequencies change as a result of these influences. Quantitative genetics is the study of continuous traits (such as height or weight) that do not exhibit straightforward Mendelian inheritance because they are the product of the interplay of many different genres. It is based on population genetics. Ecological genetics builds on the fundamental ideas of population genetics, but it is more specifically focused on ecological challenges, such as the link between species and their surrounding environments.

Medical Genetics

The application of genetics to medicine is known as medical genetics. Clinical genetics (the diagnosis and treatment of genetic illnesses), cytogenetics (the study of chromosomes under a microscope), molecular genetics, and genetic counseling are all examples of medical genetics (education and guidance offered by professional advisors to help people make informed decisions based on personal genetic information).

Genetics of Behavior

Behavioral genetics is the study of how heredity influences animal behavior. Behavioral genetics is the study of the genetic foundation of personality as well as the causes and effects of human problems like mental illness, substance misuse, violence, and social attitudes in humans.

Genomics

Genomics is the study of large-scale genetic patterns across a species' genome. The data obtained from genome sequence data also indicates what genes perform, how they're controlled, and how they interact. The Human Genome Project, which is now complete, has developed a genetic blueprint for creating a human person. Researchers will be able to use this crucial knowledge to find the genetic contributions to diseases, build highly effective diagnostic tools and therapies, and better understand people's health requirements based on their genetic makeup.

FORENSIC SCIENCE

FORENSIC SCIENCE

DEFINITION:

Forensic science is the study of a wide range of sciences to answer problems in the legal system. In a variety of sectors, forensic science employs cutting-edge technology to unearth scientific evidence.

EXPLANATION:

The term "forensic" is derived from the Latin word "forensics," which means "used in or suited for courts of justice or public discussion or debate." Forensic science is any science that is employed for legal purposes in the public, in a court or in the theine justice system; thus, any science that is used for legal purposes is forensic science.

Archimedes' Eureka legend (287–212 B.C.E.) can be considered an early account of the application of forensic science. Archimedes used water displacement principles to argue that a crown was not constructed of gold (as had been believed) based on its density and buoyancy. During the seventh century, fingerprints were used as a technique of establishing identity. Medical evidence was first used to determine the mode of death in China in the 11th century, and it flourished in 16th-century Europe. The Office of the Coroner, which combines a medical and judicial approach to dealing with crimes and is still utilized in the United States today, was founded in England in the 12th century by King Richard I. The coroner system was established by the American colonists, and it is still in use today. There is no requirement that a coroner is a licensed physician under federal law.

The applications of modern forensic science are numerous. In civil situations such as forgeries, fraud, or carelessness, it is used. It can assist law enforcement personnel in determining whether any rules or regulations governing the marketing of foods and beverages, the manufacture of medications, or the use of pesticides on crops have been broken. It can also tell if automotive emissions are below acceptable limits and if drinking water fulfills legal purity standards. Forensic science is used to track whether countries are complying with international accords like the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Chemical Weapons Convention, as well as to determine whether they are building secret nuclear weapons programs. In most crimes involving a victim, such as assault, robbery, kidnapping, rape, or murder, forensic science is applied.

In a criminal inquiry involving victims, the medical examiner is a key character. The medical examiner's job is to go to the crime scene, perform an autopsy (body examination) in cases of death, examine the medical evidence and laboratory reports, research the victim's medical history, and compile all of this information into a report for the district attorney, who is the public prosecuting officer for a specific district. Medical examiners are typically forensic pathologists who specialize in the study of structural and functional changes in the body as a result of injury. Forensic scientists, who are experts in these subjects, may be called upon by the medical examiner to assist in the investigation of a crime. In criminal cases, forensic scientists are frequently involved in the search for an investigation of physical traces that may be beneficial in establishing or disproving a relationship between a suspect and the crime scene or victim. Blood, other bodily fluids, hair, textile fibers from clothing, paint, glass, other building materials, footwear, tool, tire marks, and incendiary substances used to ignite fires are all examples of such traces. Occasionally, the scientist will come to the scene to offer advice on the likely sequence of events and to assist in the early evidence search. Toxicologists are forensic scientists who look for drugs, poisons, alcohol, and other chemicals in a person's bodily fluids, tissue, and organs. Others specialize in weaponry, explosives, or documents of dubious validity.

Dusting the crime scene for fingerprints is one of the earliest forensic science practices. Fingerprinting is a reliable method of identification because no two fingerprints are alike. Law enforcement officials can now digitally record fingerprints and electronically transmit and receive fingerprint information for faster identification thanks to advances in computer technology. DNA fingerprinting is a powerful tool for analyzing blood, hair, skin, and sperm evidence at a crime scene. A laboratory can quickly clone, or replicate, the DNA from a little sample of any of these chemicals using an advanced technology procedure known as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This procedure generates enough DNA to compare to a criminal suspect's DNA sample.

Today, forensic science is a high-tech field that analyses and researches evidence utilizing electron microscopes, lasers, ultraviolet and infrared light, advanced analytical chemical procedures, and computerized databanks. Actual blood tests, such as gas chromatography, can be used to determine blood alcohol levels, for example. This approach involves vaporizing a blood sample at a high temperature and passing the gas through a column that separates the various chemical components contained in the blood. Gas chromatography may identify a variety of substances, including barbiturates, cocaine, amphetamines, and heroin, in addition to alcohol.

When a body is located in a lake, stream, river, or ocean with water in the lungs, the medical examiner must determine whether the drowning occurred in the area where the body was discovered or elsewhere. The presence or absence of diatoms, single-celled algae prevalent in all-natural bodies of water, is examined using a conventional microscope that can magnify things to 1,500 times their true size. Because diatoms are removed from domestic water during treatment, the absence of diatoms suggests that the drowning occurred in a sink or bathtub, not where the body was discovered.

The minute gunpowder particles present on the hand of a person who has recently shot a gun are detected using a scanning electron microscope that magnifies items 100,000 times. These particles can also be studied chemically to determine if they came from a certain type of bullet. The presence of a suspect at a crime scene can often be determined through forensic testing of substances found at the scene. Bite marks left by humans can also be used as evidence. Bite marks may be discovered on a homicide victim's body or in food or other items found at the crime scene, such as chewing gum. Liquid plastic can be used to cover the impressions left by these bites by a forensic scientist. When the cast is hardened, it becomes an exceptionally accurate reproduction of the assailant's teeth, which may be compared to a cast made from the suspect's teeth.

FORENSIC SCIENCE SUBDISCIPLINES

Criminalistics

In criminal investigations, this involves the application of several sciences to address questions about biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, shoeprints, and tire tracks), controlled substances, and guns.

Accounting for Legal Purposes

This is the research and analysis of financial data.

Forensic Anthropology

Forensic Anthropology is a branch of forensic science that deals with the study

The use of physical anthropology in a judicial situation, usually for the retrieval and identification of skeletonized human remains, is known as forensic anthropology. Economic Forensics

This includes present-day estimations of lost earnings and benefits, the lost value of a firm, lost business profits, lost value of home service, replacement labor costs, and future medical care expenditures, among other things.

Engineering Forensics

This is the study of what causes technologies, vehicles, and structures to fail.

Forensic Entomology

Forensic Entomology is a branch of forensic entomology that studies insects

This is the study of insects in, on, and around human remains to determine the time and place of death. It's also possible to tell if a body was transferred after it died.

Forensic Odontology

Forensic Odontology is a branch of dentistry that focuses on the study of teeth

This is the study of teeth's individuality.

FOOD SERVICES

 

FOOD SERVICES

DEFINITION:

Food science is a branch of science that studies all technical elements of food, from harvesting to slaughtering to cooking and consumption. It combines and utilizes knowledge from chemistry, engineering, biology, and nutrition to preserve, process, package, and distribute nutritious, wholesome, inexpensive, desirable, and safe foods.

EXPLANATION:

Food science has evolved over time as new technologies for preserving foods and ensuring public safety have become available. The food system was very different hundreds of years ago than it is now. People in rural areas purchased vast quantities of bulk essentials such as wheat, cereals, and sugar for home preparation, supplementing their staples with whatever fruits and vegetables they could cultivate or gather. These products were purchased in farmers' markets by city dwellers, a habit that is still practiced in many areas today. When preserved in cool, dark rooms called root cellars, some goods, such as potatoes, might last for months. People bought enormous blocks of ice cut from the surfaces of frozen lakes and rivers and preserved perishable meals in their ice boxes before modern refrigerators became accessible.

Throughout history, a variety of ways for preserving foods have been created, including salting meat, drying fruits and vegetables in the sun or over low fires, and turning milk into cheese. Nicholas Appert, a Frenchman, invented a method for preserving food in glass jars in the early 1800s. Appert is known as the "Father of Canning," but he is also hailed as the "Father of Food Science" by some. Modern food science, on the other hand, entails a lot more than only food preservation. Food scientists assist in the development of novel products, the design of manufacturing methods for these foods, the selection of packaging materials, the study of product shelf life, sensory evaluations, and microbiological and chemical testing. Food scientists research more fundamental phenomena that are closely related to the manufacturing of a certain food product and its qualities at universities.

Food science is an applied science that, like engineering, draws on information from a variety of natural science domains to solve practical challenges. Microbiologists, chemists, and physicists are all well-versed in the fundamentals of food science. Food scientists seek to ensure that products are free of bacteria and dangerous substances because food safety is everyone's top priority. The chemical makeup of meals is particularly essential in determining flavor, color, appearance, and texture quality. Food scientists must also have a basic understanding of engineering principles in order to comprehend how a processing method affects the food.

FOOD SCIENCE SUBDISCIPLINES

Food Microbiology or Food Safety

The causes of foodborne infections and how to avoid them.

Preserving Food

The causes of food spoilage and how to avoid it.

Food Science and Technology

The industrial procedures that are utilized to make food.

Development of New Products

The development of novel culinary items.

Sensory Evaluation

Food perception is the study of how food is perceived by the senses of the consumer.

The Science of Food

The molecular structure of food and how those molecules are involved in chemical processes.

Biotechnology in the Food Industry

The application of genetic engineering techniques to produce foods with desirable characteristics, such as insect resistance.

Science of Nutraceuticals

Foods that may offer special health or medicinal benefits are studied.

Science of Fermentation

Beer, wine, and other fermented foods are made.

The food industry is relatively immune to the economic ups and downs that other businesses face since people constantly need to eat. Food processing is the largest manufacturing industry in the United States, employing over 14 million people and accounting for 20% of GDP. After graduation, the vast majority of food science majors find well-paying professions.

ECOLOGY

 

ECOLOGY

 

DEFINITION:

Ecology, often known as ecological science, is a discipline of biology that investigates how plants and animals interact with their physical and biological surroundings.

EXPLANATION:

Light and heat, or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients in the soil, water, and the atmosphere are all part of the physical environment. Other varieties of plants and animals, as well as organisms of the same sort, make up the biological environment.

Ecology is a subfield of environmental science that is frequently misunderstood. Environmental science also analyses interactions of purely physical characteristics that do not involve biological systems, even though both are multidisciplinary sciences that focus on the interactions of populations of species. Environmentalism, which focuses on human-caused damage to the natural environment, is sometimes confused with ecology. Similarly, the terms ecologic and ecological are used interchangeably to mean "environmentally friendly. "Studies of animal populations and their surroundings can be traced back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle and his follower Theophrastus, despite ecology being a relatively recent study that only gained prominence in the second part of the twentieth century. As early as the fourth century B.C.E., Theophrastus articulated interrelationships among animals and between creatures and their surroundings. With the publication of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species in 1850, as well as the work of his contemporary and opponent Alfred Russel Wallace, the field began to bloom.

Wallace identified the interconnectedness of animal and plant species and classified them as bioeconomic, or living communities. Eduard Suess, an Austrian geologist, coined the word "biosphere" in 1875 to describe the various conditions that favor life on Earth. Environmentalists and other conservationists have used ecology and other sciences to bolster their advocacy positions since the 19th century. For political or economic reasons, environmentalist viewpoints are frequently divisive.

As a result, some ecological research has a direct impact on policy and political discourse, which in turn influences ecological research. The National Audubon Society, whose public policy office is in Washington, D.C., works with Congress, the executive branch of the federal government, and the media to promote environmental conservation, and is an example of a powerful environmentalist advocacy organization.

The basic tenet of ecology is that every living entity has an ongoing and continuous relationship with every other component of its environment. Ecology can be described as any condition in which creatures interact with their surroundings. Food chains or food webs connect species within the environment. Energy from the sun is acquired by primary producers (plants) via photosynthesis and moves upward up the food chain to primary consumers (plant-eating animals, or herbivores), secondary and tertiary consumers (meat-eating animals, or carnivores), and finally to waste heat. The matter is integrated into decomposers (such as mushrooms and bacteria), which destroy nutrients and return them to the ecosystem as a result of this process. The concept of an ecosystem can be applied to a pond, a field, or a patch of deadwood of various sizes. A micro-ecosystem is a tiny ecological unit. An ecosystem, for example, can be a stone with all the life beneath it. A forest is a meso-ecosystem, whereas an ecoregion is a macro ecosystem.

An ecological crisis can develop when a species or population's environment changes in a way that threatens the species' survival. A change in the climate (such as increased temperature or decreased rainfall), an exceptional incident (such as an oil spill), increased predatory activity (such as overfishing), or explosive development in the population of the species may all trigger the crisis.

Human actions have had a significant impact on many ecosystems during the last few centuries, diminishing the amount of forest on the planet (deforestation), increasing the amount of land devoted to agriculture, buildings, and highways, and polluting ecosystems.

ECOLOGICAL SUBDISCIPLINES

Physiological Ecology (or Ecophysiology) and Behavioral Ecology are two branches of ecology.

These studies look at how an individual adapts to their surroundings.

Ecology of Populations (or Autecology)

This research focuses on the population dynamics of a particular species or a related group of species (such as animal, plant, or insect ecology).

Ecology of the Community (or Synecology)

The interactions between species within an ecological community are the focus of this study.

Ecology of Ecosystems

This research looks at how energy and matter travel across ecological components.

Ecology of the Landscape

This research looks at processes and relationships across different ecosystems or very vast geographic areas (for example, Arctic or polar ecology, desert ecology, tropical ecology, and marine ecology).

Ecology of Humans

As diverse as the ecosystems and animals you research, an ecologist's job options are as many as the environments and animals you study. Basically, an ecologist is needed in any situation where research on the interaction of species and the environment is required. Oceans, deserts, woods, towns, grasslands, rivers, and every other part of the globe are studied by ecologists. Ecologists are increasingly collaborating with physical scientists, social scientists, policymakers, and computer programmers to better understand how species interact with one another and with their surroundings. Educators, technicians, field scientists, administrators, consultants, and authors are all examples of ecologists.

Cell biology

 

Cell biology

 

DEFINITION:

Cells are the smallest, self-contained units of an organism's structure, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm and encased by a membrane.

EXPLANATION:

 Cell biology studies the physiological qualities, structure, organelles (such as nuclei and mitochondria), relationships, life cycle, division, and death of these basic units of organisms at microscopic and molecular levels. Cell biology encompasses both the vast diversity of single-celled creatures like bacteria and the numerous specialized cells found in multicellular species like animals and plants. Cell biology has typically focused on concerns about how organelles perform and interact, how these cellular processes are regulated, and how different cells within an organism communicate with one another. All biological and medical sciences require a basic understanding of cell composition and function. In the domains of cell and molecular biology, examining the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly essential since the concepts learned from researching one cell type can be applied to other cell types. Genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, and developmental biology are all strongly related to cell biology research. Cell biology has traditionally focused on questions about how organelles work and interact with one another, how cellular processes are regulated, and how different cells within an organism communicate with one another. All biological and medical sciences rely on an understanding of the composition of cells and how they function. In the fields of cell and molecular biology, studying the similarities and differences between cell types is especially important because the principles learned from studying one cell type can be applied to other cell types. Genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, and developmental biology are all intertwined in cell biology research. Ribosomes in the cytoplasm make the majority of proteins. Protein biosynthesis or protein translation are terms used to describe this process. During synthesis, some proteins, such as those that will be integrated into membranes (membrane proteins), are transported to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and processed further in the Golgi apparatus. Membrane proteins can be released from the cell or moved to the plasma membrane or other subcellular compartments from the Golgi. Proteins pass through these compartments regularly. Proteins that are found in the ER and Golgi interact with other proteins but remain in their separate compartments. Other proteins make their way to the plasma membrane via the ER and Golgi.

CELL BIOLOGY SUBDISCIPLINES

Transport Modes: Active and Passive

The movement of molecules into and out of cells is referred to as this.

Adhesion of Cells

Cells and tissues are held together in this way.

Division of Cells

The study of how cells replicate is known as cell division.

Signaling in Cells

This is when chemical cues from outside the cell control cellular action.

Metabolism in Cells

These are the procedures for generating and releasing energy.

OTHER RELATED DISCIPLINES

Biochemistry

The study of chemical processes and transformations in living organisms is known as biochemistry.

Biology of Development

This is the scientific study of how organisms grow and evolve.

The science of genes, heredity, and organism variation is known as genetics.

Molecular Biology

This is the study of molecular connections among a cell's many processes, such as the interplay between DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and how these relationships are regulated.

Biology of Structure

This is the study of biological macromolecules' architecture and shape, particularly proteins and nucleic acids, and what causes them to have the structures they have.

Botany

 

Botany

Define:

Botany is the scientific study of photosynthesis-producing plants or multicellular organisms.

Explanation:

 Botany is often known as plant science or plant biology as a discipline of biology. Botany is a broad field of science that investigates the structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, ecology, and evolution of plants. Plants are important to study because they are an essential aspect of life on Earth, providing food, oxygen, fuel, medicine, and fibers that enable other living forms to exist. They absorb carbon dioxide, a waste product produced by most organisms, and greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, through photosynthesis. Plants, like other forms of life, can be examined on a variety of levels. The first is the molecular level, which is concerned with plant biochemistry, molecular biology, and genetics. The morphology and physiology of plants are studied at the cellular, tissue, and organelle (a discrete structure of a cell with a specialized function) level; while interactions within a species, with other species, and with the environment are studied at the community and population level.

 

Botanists used to study any living thing that wasn't an animal. Fungi, algae, and bacteria are now classified as members of other kingdoms, but they are still studied in introductory botany schools, according to the current categorization scheme. The ancient Greeks were among the first to write scientifically about plants. Empedocles, who lived in the fifth century B.C.E., believed that plants, like animals, had a soul, as well as reason and common sense. Plants, according to Aristotle, were in the same category as animals and inanimate objects. Theophrastus, Aristotle's pupil, published two works about plants that were still in use in the 15th century. Carl Linné, a Swedish physician-turned-botanist, is credited with inventing the systematic naming method (nomenclature), which is still used to provide scientific names to all species, plant and otherwise, today. Plants have always been a convenient organism to study scientifically since they do not present the same ethical concerns as an animal or human research. After crossing pea plants in his garden in the 1850s, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel wrote the first rules of inheritance, a set of core ideas relating to the transmission of hereditary features from parent organisms to their children. Barbara McClintock uncovered "jumping genes" and other information regarding inheritance by examining maize plants nearly a century later.

BOTANY SUBDISCIPLINES

Agronomy and Crop Science

Agronomy and Crop Science is an agricultural science that deals with the production of field crops and soil management.

Phycology and Algology

Algae research is the study of algae.

Bacteriology

Bacterial science is the study of bacteria (also considered part of microbiology).

Bryology

Mosses and liverworts are studied in this field.

Mycology

The study of fungi is known as mycology.

Paleobotany

The study of plant fossils is known as phytoarcheology.

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

The study of the structure and function of plants is known as botany.

Biology of Plant Cells

The study of the structure and function of cells is known as cell biology.

Genetics of Plants

This is the study of plant genetic inheritance.

Pathology of Plants

This is the study of plant diseases.

Pteridology

The study of ferns and their relatives is known as pteridology.

 

Botany as a bachelor's degree prepares students for professional work or graduate school. Plant pathology, forestry, agricultural production, horticulture, genetics and plant breeding, plant biotechnology, and environmental monitoring and control are all areas where a botany degree can help you advance your career. Positions as an ecologist, taxonomist, environmentalist, forester, and plant explorer are among the occupations open to someone who appreciates the outdoors. Biophysics, developmental botany, genetics, modeling, and systems ecology can appeal to someone with a mathematical background. A chemistry enthusiast could work as a plant physiologist, plant biochemist, or molecular biologist. Microbiology, phycology, and mycology are popular choices for people who are captivated by microscopic organisms. Ornamental horticulture and landscape design on a bigger scale necessitates the aesthetic use of plant shape and color. Plant pathology (diseases) or plant breeding can be of interest to someone concerned about the world's food supply.